Lettori case // Longest-running breach of the parity of treatment provision of the Treaty in the history of the EU nears an end.
The College of Commissioners at its meeting on Friday last unanimously endorsed the referral of infringement proceedings N.2021/4055 to the Court of Justice of the European Union(CJEU). The proceedings, taken because of Italy’s continuing discrimination against foreign language lecturers in Italian universities(Lettori ), were opened in September 2021. The Court has already ruled four times in favour of the Lettori in a line of litigation which extends back to the seminal Allué rulingof 1989.
The College of Commissioners’ decision is recorded under the Jobs and Social Rights portfolio section in the July infringement package. Given the newsworthiness of the College’s decision, a press release, giving additional detail on the case was also published. It records that the case is being referred to the Court because of Italy’s failure to implement the ruling in enforcement Case C-119/04, a ruling which was handed down in 2006.
In their ruling in that case, 13 judges of the Grand Chamber held that a last-minute Italian law of March 2004 was compliant with EU law. The law awarded Lettori a reconstruction of their career from the date of first employment with reference to the parameter of a part-time researcher or more favourable parameters. The law, though it remains in the statute book, has never been implemented.
Following Friday’s decision of the College, interest in this high-profile discrimination case is certain to increase. In enforcement case C-119/04, the Commission recommended the imposition of daily fines of € 309.750 on Italy for decades of discriminatory treatment against Lettori.
The fine was waived because of the enactment by Italy of a last-minute law of March 2004. In an eventual future hearing Italy’s defence team will have the unenviable task of explaining to the Court why the law which spared Italy the recommended fines was never subsequently enforced. Hence, the case has the scope to be a major public and political embarrassment for Italy.
Infringement proceedings pit complainants against member states in breach of their Treaty obligations. It goes without saying that the member states have infinitely greater resources at their disposal for defending their position than the complainants have for proving the persistence of a breach.
The complainants’ relative disadvantage in this regard is added to by the fact that exchanges in infringement proceedings between the Commission and the member state in breach are confidential. Hence, under existing arrangements, a complainant is never fully sure of the Commission’s legal position and intentions.
Against these odds, complainant Asso. CEL.L, a Lettori association founded at the La Sapienza University of Rome, and assisted by FLC CGIL, Italy’s largest trade union, has been providing the Commission with irrefutable evidence of the persistence of Italy’s breach of the Treaty, both prior to and over the course of infringement proceedings N.2021/4055. A number of important morals and lessons on the efficacy of the infringement procedure and the role of the complainant emerge from these experiences.
The Treaty Provisions on infringement proceedings
The 1957 Founding Treaty of Rome empowered the European Commission, as guardian of the Treaty, to take infringement proceedings against Member States for perceived violation of their Treaty obligations. Later, the Treaty of Maastricht further empowered the Commission to take follow-on enforcement cases for non-implementation of earlier infringement rulings, and the Court to impose pecuniary penalties on Member States where it deemed the Commission had proven its case.
These measures, particularly when taken in tandem, would seem adequate to remedy breaches of EU law in that rational member states would comply rather than pay heavy daily fines.
In the Lettori enforcement case, the Court waived the daily fines proposed by the Commission because Italy enacted last-minute legislation which the Court judged to be compliant with EU Law. However, Italy never subsequently enforced its legislation.
Hence the Commission had to revert to the first stage and start fresh infringement proceedings, thus prolonging a case which should have been resolved with the enforcement procedure.
Repetition of this unfortunate outcome could be avoided by verifying with the complainant that enacted member state legislation has in fact been enforced.
The complainant
In the Lettori case, the infringement proceedings were preceded by a pilot case, which ran on for ten years. Nearing retirement, and despairing of ever receiving justice, a group of Lettori at “La Sapienza” University of Rome formed Asso.CEL.L and applied for and obtained the status of an official complainant with the Commission.
With a mix of skills in law, statistics, data processing, Asso.CEl.L resolved to improve the quality of representations to the Commission and persuade it to move to infringement proceedings properly. A new professionalism was evident in the organization of a nationwide census of Lettori, conducted with the cooperation of FLC CGIL, which documented to the Commission’s satisfaction that the universities had not implemented the CJEU ruling in Case C-119/04.
A thorough knowledge of EU law and procedure is essential for a complainant. To his end, Asso.CEL.L set up a web page to educate colleagues on Lettori case law before the European courts.
Resources
Asso.CEL L is unique among Lettori representative organizations in that it has never accepted contributions. The negligible to zero cost of modern means of information communication and virtual meetings means running costs are very low.
Freed of the need to canvass for contributions and the bureaucratic requirement to compile and justify annual accounts, Asso.CEL.L has been able to devote its best energies to the infringement proceedings.
The moral here is that would-be complainants should master modern means of internet communication to keep their running costs low.
Relations with trade unions
In discrimination against non-national workers cases the support of a domestic trade union is invaluable. That FLC CGIL, Italy’s largest trade union, called on the Commission to prosecute Italy for its discriminatory treatment of non-national workers carried great weight.
With its impressive national organization, the cooperation of FLC CGIL proved essential to the success of the nationwide Lettori census. The same on-the-ground organization facilitated the success of the three protests held this academic year, on December 13, April 20, and most recently in the national strike of June 30.
The Press
It is obvious that good media coverage helps the cause of a complainant. In the university cities of Padova, Florence (1), and Perugia (2), local Italian TV was generous in coverage of the Lettori strike of June 30. The audience response was very supportive.
At the European level, The European Times has consistently reported on the Lettori case from the opening of the infringement proceedings to the referral of the case by the College of Commissioners to the Court of Justice. For funded organizations, there will always be a temptation to indulge in propaganda to maintain subscription income.
In its relations with the press Asso.CEL.L has always followed a policy of never trading accuracy for advocacy. This policy has been facilitated by the European Times policy of providing substantiating web links to Lettori case law.
The Parliamentary Question
MEP Claire Daly
Though exchanges between the Commission and member states in perceived breach of their Treaty obligations are confidential in infringement proceedings, the Commission must reply to parliamentary questions from MEPs.
Intelligent use of the parliamentary question can help a complainant’s case and such use also has a positive public relations value.
Dublin MEP Clare Daly has kept the Lettori case before the EU conscience, both through her speeches in the European Parliament and her questions co-signed by other Irish MEPs to the Commission. The last of these questions successfully called on the Commission to refer the Lettori case to the CJEU.
Conclusion
On university campuses across Italy on Friday the Commission’s decision to refer the Lettori case to the CJEU was warmly welcomed. Though geographically remote from the Lettori in Brussels, there was recognition that the Commission had been attentive to the representations of Asso.CEL.L and FLC CGI in its conduct of the infringement proceedings.
MEP Clare Daly said :
“The decision of the Commission to refer the Lettori case to the Court of Justice is very welcome. Workers’ rights under the Treaty must be respected across the EU. I will continue to liaise with the official complainant Asso.CEL.L and with my fellow MEPs to ensure that the Lettori receive the settlements for the reconstruction of career due to them under EU law.”
The lower house of the Russian parliament – the State Duma – adopted on 14.07.2023 in the third, final reading a bill that would prohibit the performance of sex-change operations, reported Reuters.
The bill prohibits doctors from “performing a medical intervention intended to change human sex” and from prescribing hormone therapy to patients.
An exception is made for cases of congenital anomalies in children, including genetic and endocrine diseases associated with impaired formation of children’s genitals.
Each bill must go through three readings in the lower house of the Russian parliament (the Federal Assembly) before being considered by the upper house, the Federation Council, and then given to Russian President Vladimir Putin for his signature in order to come into force.
The future law would also prohibit changing the gender on official identity documents and would not allow transgender people to adopt children or annul a marriage valid at the time of the gender change.
The motion of black holes and other massive objects through space can create ripples in the fabric of the universe, called gravitational waves. On June 28 scientists announced the first evidence of a background of long-wavelength gravitational waves that fills the cosmos.
These waves are thought to have been created over eons by supermassive black holes, up to billions of times the mass of our Sun, circling each other before they merge. Detecting the gravitational wave background is analogous to hearing the hum of a large group of people talking at a party, without distinguishing any particular voice.
This artist’s concept shows stars, black holes, and nebula laid over a grid representing the fabric of space-time. Ripples in this fabric are called gravitational waves. The NANOGrav collaboration detected evidence of gravitational waves created by black holes billions of times the mass of the Sun. Image credit: NANOGrav collaboration; Aurore Simonet
The background ripples detected by NANOGrav could help scientists better understand how gravitational waves are created and what happens to them as they propagate through the universe. They could also be used to study supermassive black hole mergers, which can last millions of years.
Scientists think these mergers happen in most galaxies and influence their evolution.
A computer rendering of two black holes that are about to merge, as viewed from above. Image credit: SXS Lensing/Simulating eXtreme Spacetimes Collaboration
The North American Nanohertz Observatory for Gravitational Waves (NANOGrav) presented the evidence in a series of papers published in the Astrophysical Journal Letters.
NANOGrav is a National Science Foundation-funded Physics Frontiers Center of more than 190 scientists from the United States and Canada, including scientists at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California and other NASA centers.
This illustration shows the NANOGrav project observing cosmic objects called pulsars in an effort to detect gravitational waves – ripples in the fabric of space. Image credit: NANOGrav/T. Klein
The collaboration has spent more than 15 years collecting high-precision data from ground-based radio telescopes, looking for these gravitational waves.
The discovery complements the first-ever detection of gravitational waves in 2015 by LIGO, the Laser Interferometer Gravitational Observatory. Those signals, at a much shorter wavelength than the new discovery, were from black holes about 30 times the mass of our Sun.
NASA is contributing to the ESA (European Space Agency)-led Laser Interferometer Space Antenna mission, a future space-based observatory that will detect gravitational waves that are in a wavelength range between those detected by NANOGrav and LIGO.
Technology has had a huge growth period and continues to advance on a daily basis. As of 2023, it was listed that there are 4.95 billion internet users, 7.33 billion mobile phone users and currently 1.35 million tech startup companies around the world. Therefore, it should come as no surprise that educational institutions are getting in on the game and looking at technology-based options to make educational opportunities accessible and wider-reaching for students.
In the 1970s Australia was first introduced to the internet through ARPANET based in America aiming to further technology in the world. During this period a few Australian scientific companies were able to make connections via the international dial-up service through what was known then as the Australian Overseas Telecommunications Commission (OTC).
This was the beginning of the fledgling internet in Australia, despite the slowness of the telephone commission (Telecom, later Telstra) to meet the demands for the internet. Although it would be many years before it would be used by everyday Australians, it is now something the average Australian can’t live without and increasingly becoming a beneficial tool to classroom learning for students to complete assignments and learn invaluable information.
Email
By the 1980s, Australia was steadily on the move with this emerging technology and email was becoming the new in-vogue trend. This continued to expand with many Australians getting in on the movement and discovering email to become a fast and efficient way of communicating through the written word.
Rather than writing a letter and putting it in the post, a person was now able to type a letter, business draft, assignment, etc. and send that through to another individual or company to be received instantly into an inbox which they can check at any time. The use of email is useful in classroom-based activities as it allows students working in groups to email the work to each other for viewing and checking.
Instant messaging
Enter instant messaging, although still considered a relative newcomer to Australian technology and the world at large, has already shown its popularity with estimated billions of users utilising instant messaging platforms to communicate.
With well-known instant chat platforms such as WhatsApp, Facebook Messenger and Skype topping the charts, it is clear why this format of communication is hugely important for the continued technological movement in Australia. Not only does it allow students to communicate immediately relating to their school work, it also makes communication around the world possible instantly, making somebody wanting to study from outside that country possible.
Zoom (video conference / lectures)
To move on from instant messaging, the next step in this development has been online video conferencing platforms such as Zoom and more recently Microsoft Teams. These platforms used to only be available to high-level multinational companies who could afford “fancy” software.
With the advent of the smartphone and faster internet connections, this was already becoming a possibility for the everyday citizen, however, Covid-19 really pushed companies and educational providers to find alternative ways to develop their wares. Zoom, arguably the most popular video conferencing platform, is user-friendly and free for 30-minute intervals (longer with a paid account). This makes it possible for trainees to attend learning from the comfort of their own homes anywhere in the world.
Blended Learning
The term blended learning has evolved over the years and really took off because of covid-19 pandemic with education institutions being forced to think outside the box to allow themselves to continue to educate next-generation Australians.
Flexibility is one of the biggest attractions of blended learning; it allows students to create a timetable that works best for them with the possibility of studying both face-to-face and via technology components.
Training Providers
Many educational institutes are researching and starting the blended learning mentality along with placing ample resources online allowing the student instant access to this information, with course materials increasingly available online along with the submission of assignments.
Universities offer blended learning opportunities such as the Master of Education to support the next generation of students with their technology journey, whilst also continuing to learn by themselves.
Technology
Technology is becoming part of many students’ everyday lives with an estimated 600,000 new internet users each day. Along with digital skills fast becoming more and more necessary across all industries so an even higher demand for students to be “tech savvy” from a younger age.
Research through the Department of Industry, Science and Resources has shown that 87% of jobs in Australia will require higher digital literacy skills by 2025 and by 2034 technology will be extended to 4.5 million Australian workers. This showcases the extreme need for Australian students to learn from a much younger age about technology and how it works.
Reasons why students need technology in the classroom
As a result of technology continuing to steamroll ahead, learning platforms need more access to technology in the classroom. This will allow students to experience real-world possibilities whilst preparing them for the modern Australian workplace which incorporates digital literacy, adaptability, and flexibility.
Additionally, this promotes global and cultural awareness, supports varying learning styles, teaches students responsibility whilst being online and adds a “fun” factor to learning as the trainer can incorporate activities such as games, quizzes and online polls and surveys to break up the learning day.
In today’s climate, the only thing anybody can say with certainty is that change in technological advances is constant and ever-accelerating. Training institutions need to keep up with these changes to ensure they are fully preparing their students for the real world and giving them the best opportunity to gain meaningful work.
The only way to ensure this is properly achieved is to ensure that training remains up to date with technology and provides ample opportunity in their learning environment for their students to utilise and understand each development.
“For three months now, the people of Sudan have endured unspeakable suffering amid violence that is tearing their country apart,” Martin Griffiths, UN Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs and Emergency Relief Coordinator, said in a statement.
“As the conflict enters its fourth month, the battle lines are hardening, making it ever more difficult to reach the millions of people who need urgent humanitarian assistance,” he added.
More than 3 million people have been displaced due to the conflict both within Sudan and across its borders; the fighting, which broke out in mid-April has reportedly claimed the lives of more than 1,100 people and injured over 12,000, according to the UN Office for Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA).
Health workers and facilities have also been attacked, severely limiting access for those in need, and with the onset of the rainy season, there is an increased risk of outbreaks of water- and vector-borne diseases, compounded by challenges in waste management and shortages of supplies.
Children are among the worst affected, with an estimated 13.6 million – roughly half the number remaining in Sudan – in urgent need of assistance.
Describing Sudan as “one of the world’s most difficult places for humanitarian workers to operate,” Mr. Griffiths emphasized the collaborative efforts of local organizations and international aid groups in delivering life-saving supplies.
However, that work cannot be carried out when relief workers themselves, are at risk.
“But we cannot work under the barrel of a gun. We cannot replenish stores of food, water and medicine if brazen looting of these stocks continues. We cannot deliver if our staff are prevented from reaching people in need.”
He underlined that ultimately, the suffering of Sudanese people will end only when the fighting stops, and called on the parties to the conflict to abide by the Declaration of Commitments they signed in Jeddah to protect civilians and respect international humanitarian law.
Each day ‘the misery deepens’
Each day the fighting continues, the misery deepens for Sudanese civilians
“Each day the fighting continues, the misery deepens for Sudanese civilians […] We must all redouble our efforts to ensure that the conflict in Sudan does not spiral into a brutal and interminable civil war with grave consequences for the region,” the UN official stressed.
“The people of Sudan cannot afford to wait,” he concluded.
The Alamiyine Shorfas and the Delegation of the Tribes of the Southern Sahara Provinces of the Kingdom of Morocco reaffirm their strong bond within the framework of a unified Morocco from north to south
Sidi Nabil Baraka:
The visit confirms the sincerity of the national cohesion around the Commandery of the Faithful of Believers His Majesty King Mohammed VI
Sidi Hassan raguibi Al-Idrisi :
We cling to our Moroccanness and we bless all the initiatives taken by His Majesty King Mohammed VI.
The chorfas alamiyines of the Sufi Moulay Abdeslam pole of northern Morocco, and the delegation of the regions of the Moroccan Sahara, are united around the great and strong bond that has united them for centuries, within the framework of a unified Moroccan kingdom from north to south. , and an allegiance to the glorious Alawite throne.
In this context, Sidi Nabil Baraka explained in the name of the Sufi Way the Mashichiya Shadiliya and the chorfas alamiyines that the visit of relatives that the delegation of the southern provinces carries out with their cousins on the tomb of the saint moulay abdeslam Ibn Mishish, is a beautiful ancestral tradition, and a spiritual celebration during which the honourable scholars of universal Sufism of the Mashichiya shadiliya of the world meet with the delegation of the southern provinces.
He added that this visit is part of the firm will to preserve the heritage of the ancestors, who made this visit an opportunity to exchange love and brotherhood and renew the alliance and loyalty to the glorious Alaouite throne.
Sidi Hassan Al Rguibi al-Idrisi said that the visit of the delegation of the Saharan provinces is not the first at the house of the Baraka family, but also their grandfathers and fathers have preceded them for centuries.
The visit of the delegations from the south carries many messages, first and foremost the attachment to their Moroccanness and affirms the strong bond that unites the Sahrawi tribes with their cousins in northern Morocco.
Sidi Nabil Baraka had received, Friday, July 14, at his home the tribes of the southern province.
After centuries and in Saint Moulay Abdeslam the tribes of the Moroccan Sahara have united around the monarchy 44After centuries and in Saint Moulay Abdeslam the tribes of the Moroccan Sahara have united around the monarchy 45After centuries and in Saint Moulay Abdeslam the tribes of the Moroccan Sahara have united around the monarchy 46After centuries and in Saint Moulay Abdeslam the tribes of the Moroccan Sahara have united around the monarchy 47After centuries and in Saint Moulay Abdeslam the tribes of the Moroccan Sahara have united around the monarchy 48After centuries and in Saint Moulay Abdeslam the tribes of the Moroccan Sahara have united around the monarchy 49After centuries and in Saint Moulay Abdeslam the tribes of the Moroccan Sahara have united around the monarchy 50After centuries and in Saint Moulay Abdeslam the tribes of the Moroccan Sahara have united around the monarchy 51After centuries and in Saint Moulay Abdeslam the tribes of the Moroccan Sahara have united around the monarchy 52After centuries and in Saint Moulay Abdeslam the tribes of the Moroccan Sahara have united around the monarchy 53After centuries and in Saint Moulay Abdeslam the tribes of the Moroccan Sahara have united around the monarchy 54After centuries and in Saint Moulay Abdeslam the tribes of the Moroccan Sahara have united around the monarchy 55After centuries and in Saint Moulay Abdeslam the tribes of the Moroccan Sahara have united around the monarchy 56
The aim of the bill introduced by President Volodymyr Zelensky is to “distinguish from the Russian heritage”
The Parliament of Ukraine voted yesterday to change the date of the Orthodox celebration of the Nativity of Christ from January 7 to December 25, switching to the Gregorian calendar, reported DPA and BTA.
The purpose of the bill introduced by President Volodymyr Zelensky is to “distinguish from the Russian heritage”.
In 2017, December 25 was declared a non-working day.
The largest Orthodox church in Ukraine – the Ukrainian Orthodox Church, which has long-standing ties with the Moscow Patriarchate, has not yet commented on the change, DPA noted. The UOC observes the holidays according to the Julian calendar used by Russia.
Since Russia’s annexation of Crimea in 2014, Ukraine has been trying to cut ties with its Soviet and Russian past. Russia’s full-scale invasion of Ukraine 16 months ago boosted those efforts.
The blow from the war will be indirect, the dream of the USA is to destroy the economy of the EU, the spokesman of the Russian Foreign Ministry told Bulgarian journalist Martin Karbovsky‘s broadcast on his YouTube channel.
“Do you know who you are going to sell your nuclear reactors to – to people who have turned to extremist terrorist activity, who shelled the Zaporizhzhia NPP, who recently blew up an ammonia pipeline on their own territory.” This was stated by the spokesperson of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation, Maria Zakharova, in an interview with Karbovsky on 13th of July.
“You want to tell me that you will sell them to people who blew up the Kakhovka hydroelectric plant? And if you have doubts that this is their doing, I will give you an example – since 2014, they have been constantly mining the power lines to Crimea, blocking the flow on water. These are acts of terrorism. Do you intend to supply energy capacities to these people,” Zakharova asked rhetorically.
She asked Karbovsky if he really thinks this is a conflict between Russia and Ukraine over territory.
“It is absolutely not the case, all the power of the Western world, first of all the USA and Great Britain, are at war with us, and the EU is being used by them,” emphasized the spokesperson of the Russian Foreign Ministry and continued:
“But something else is scary for you – the main blow is directed indirectly – against the EU, this is the dream of the USA – to destroy the EU’s economy. That is why Great Britain left the EU in order not to take the economic blow”.
She emphasized that the goal of the United States is for many businesses to move there and pay their taxes in the United States.
“The EU has not been able to settle the Ukrainian crisis on its own continent for 8 years, because the USA did not allow it to do so,” Zakharova was categorical.
Source: @Martin_Karbowski is the YouTube channel where journalist Martin Karbowski publishes new and already aired original video materials.
Silence is indeed difficult to describe, but psychologists from Johns Hopkins University (USA) have discovered that we can hear it. The scientists presented their findings in the journal PNAS. For this purpose, the researchers conducted several experiments in which they used so-called auditory illusions. Like optical illusions, acoustic illusions can also distort our perception: thanks to the work of the brain, a person hears sounds that do not exist. There are many types of auditory illusions. One example is when one long beep appears longer to the listener than two consecutive short sounds, even if they are of the same length.
In experiments involving 1,000 people, a team of psychologists replaced the beeps in this auditory illusion with short periods of silence. Between these periods, the participants listened to all kinds of noises imitating the sounds of busy streets, markets, restaurants, railway stations.
Surprisingly, the results were the same as with the acoustic illusion described above. The volunteers thought that the long period of silence lasted longer than two other, shorter periods without sounds. “There is at least one thing that we hear, that we hear, that is not sound – silence. That is, these kinds of illusions that were previously thought to be unique to the auditory processing of sounds are also inherent in the case of silence: we actually hear the absence of sound,” says Ian Phillips, professor of philosophy, psychology and brain sciences, co-author of the research.
According to the scientists, their results open a new way to study the so-called perception of absence. The team plans to continue investigating the extent to which people perceive silence, including whether they hear silence that is not preceded by sound.
Photo by Sound On: https://www.pexels.com/photo/close-up-photo-of-woman-in-yellow-shirt-3761026/
Cannabis is the most consumed substance in Europe by 15.1% of the population aged 15-34 with 2.1 % being daily cannabis users (EMCDDA European Drug Report June 2023). And 97 000 users entered for drug treatments related to cannabis use in 2021 and were involved in 25% of the acute toxicity presentations, usually mixed with other substances. Cannabis is with alcohol the gateway to drugs for young people leading to the universe of drugs.
If there was a government that had an interest in corrupting its governed, it would only have to encourage the use of hashish.
Artificial Paradises – Charles Baudelaire (1860)
Cannabis is a dioecious plant (plant female and plant male). Cannabis has 3 subspecies: Cannabis sativa sativa L., is 1.80 m to 3 m high, with long fibers for industrial use (named as “hemp”), with a flowering time of 60-90 days; the smaller C. s. indica (1m), flowers more quickly 50-60 days and the C. s. ruderalis, a wilder type. France is the top hemp producer in Europe and third in the world.
From a drug use point of view, only the flowers of sativa and indica are interesting because richer in cannabinoids located in numerous small vesicles, the trichomes, more located around the flower for a protection against the predators in the context of food chain vs. species survival!
Initially the C. sativa was considered for its euphoric effects, producing the “high” while the C. indica produces a relaxation of the cerebral activity, creating an effect “stone”, which sticks. According to the UNODC, Morocco, in the Rif, is the world’s largest producer of psychoactive cannabis plants for the production of hashish (resin form) but since 2021 the culture is regulated.
The Cannabinoid substances were discovered in the 1960s in Israel by the team of Raphael Mechoulam. More than 113 substances have been isolated in the plant but the majority of the effects and their functions are still under study. They are all soluble in lipids, alcohols and organic solvents but almost insoluble in water.
There are 3 types of cannabinoids: – phytocannabinoids of the fresh plant; they are transformed under the action of heat, light, and during drying; – synthetic cannabinoids developed in the laboratory; – endocannabinoids: 8 are currently listed. They are produced by certain organisms, derived from fatty acids in cell membranes, they constitute the endocannabinoid system.
A) Among the phytocannabinoids (molecules with 21 carbon atoms): -CBG (Cannabigerol) is derived from cannabigerolic acid (CBGA), a combination in the plant of olivetolic acid and geranyldiphosphate. CBGA, which is acidic, is easily broken down into CBG with the loss of CO2. The CBG (less than 1% of the plant) is considered as the “cannabinoid strain” with a low boiling point (52°C) and therefore easily transformable! Should be non-psychotropic. -THC (TetraHydroCannabinol). Delta 9-THC is the psychotropic drug responsible for the euphoric high and its weaker psychotropic isomer, the Delta 8-THC. THC is derived from the non-psychoactive acid : THCA. -HHC (HexaHydroCannabinol-a hydrogenated THC) has also been isolated in small quantities in seeds and pollen, synthesized in 1947 by Adams Roger. Its psychotropic action is comparable to THC, it alters the perception of time. In 2023 HHC is already illegal in several EU countries (See also infra).
Let’s remember that unlike alkaloid psychotropic molecules as cocaine and morphine, the Delta 8-THC and Delta 9-THC are tricyclic terpenoid drugs. The cannabinoids are a class of lipophilic molecules, storing in fatty bodies including the brain (60% of lipids) and easily crossing phospholipid cell membranes. Thus, THC is detectable up to 14 days in the blood, 30 days in the urine and 3 months in the hair. -The famous CBD (Cannabidiol) which was discovered in 1940 is present in the plant. It also derives from the cannabigerolic acid (CBGA) but with a synthesis route different from the THC. The CBD oil can be extracted from the flowers either by cold pressing or by using cold carbon dioxide (CO2) or by chemical solvents (ethanol, butane,…) or by natural solvents (olive oil, coconut oil,…). CBD oil is the subject of important advertising and marketing campaigns praising its health benefits.
CBD was not considered addictive if it is pure, but in 2016 Merrick J. et al. had shown that in an acidic environment, CBD slowly transforms into Delta-9 and Delta-8 THC. And what is the gastric environment if not an acidic environment! Moreover, it has been shown by Czégény et al, 2021, that 25% to 52% of CBD used in e-cigarettes (temperature around 300 ° C) is transformed into THC. Similarly the works of Love C.A. et al, 2023, highlight the potential respiratory health risks for the users of CBD vaping products. There is also the idea of combining CBD and THC in therapeutic cases, with CBD attenuating the deleterious psychotropic effects of THC. Todd et al (2017) show that if a co-administration could be beneficial in the very short term, on the contrary it would have a potentiating effect of the THC in the long term.
CBD is the object of a powerful marketing network to the public. However, in June 2022 the EFSA (European Food Safety Authority Panel) considering the significant uncertainties and data gaps, concludes that the safety of CBD as a Novel Food cannot currently be established: there are insufficient data on the effects of CBD on the liver, gastrointestinal tract, endocrine system, nervous system and on people’s psychological well-being. NOTE: The semi-synthetic cannabinoids HHC (Hexahydrocannabinol) is already found in 20 European countries as ‘replacement for cannabis’ and also 3 new ones: the HHC-acetate, the HHcannabiphorol and the Tetrahydrocannabidiol all produced using the CBD extracted from low-THC cannabis (EMCDDA Report 2023). Their availability is raising concerns about the youth and public health and HHC is already illegal in several EU countries.
B) The synthetic cannabinoids are the most consumed such as Spices at the origin of suicides, the Buddha Blues, not expensive, equivalent to 95% of psychoactive substance, very popular with teenagers, circulates in colleges and high schools. Other names : Black Mamba, AK-47, Shooting Star, Yucatan, Moon Rocks,… Vaporized or ingested, the synthetic cannabinoids cause convulsions, cardiovascular and neurological disorders and psychosis. The peak of action is between 2 and 5 hours until 20 hours.
Manufactured from the 1960’s initially to search for receptors in the brain, they are lipophilic molecules of 22 to 26 carbons, having a higher binding affinity up to 100%, selective or not, for the same receptors as THC and the ones of the endogenous ligands. Thus we have 18 families listed in 2019 among which the CP (cyclohexylphenols), HU (the HU-210 a structural analog of THC is 100 times more powerful), JWH, AM, AB-FUBINACA, XLR, etc.
Studies of the Scientific Reports (2017, 7:10516), suggest that these synthetic cannabinoids exert serious side effects as well as proconvulsive properties (Schneir A.B. et al, 2012) where other authors show anticonvulsive effects in cases of severe epilepsy (Devinsky O. et al, 2016).
NOTE: The THC content of festive (and illegal) cannabis is typically 15% up to 30% compared to 0.2-0.3% of the original plant before genetic manipulation. Synthetic THC is 100 times more potent and produces zombies.
C) The EndoCannabinoid System (ECS) is one of the most important and complex communication systems of the body that contributes to homeostasis. It is phylogenetically very old, present from invertebrates to vertebrates except in protozoa and insects (Silver R.J., 2019). The ECS is composed of:
1) Membrane receptors consisting of 7 transmembrane helices with 3 extra and 3 intracellular loops. The NH2-terminal is extracellular and the COOH-terminal intracytoplasmic. Receptors couple with G proteins (a guanosine triphosphate binding) located on the internal side and which transmit the signal. They are : a)-The CB1 Receptor, discovered in 1988 (William et al.) and then identified by Matsuda L. et al. (1990). It is mainly located in the neurons of the Central Nervous System and weakly in the brainstem. In the periphery, it is present in the lungs, the gastrointestinal system, the testicles and ovaries. Its localization is mainly pre-synaptic. It is involved in psychotropic effects. The exogenous agonist is THC. Sagan S. et al. (2008), show that glial cells (astrocytes) have also G protein-coupled receptors, activated by cannabinoids, but distinct from the CB1 receptor. b)-The CB2 receptor (1993 by Munro S. et al.) is more peripheral. Mostly related to the cells of the immune system, including the spleen and amygdala. More involved in immunomodulatory effects.
2) Endogenous ligands. In the same way that the endogenous opioid system uses endorphins, the endocannabinoid system has its own signalling molecules: the endocannabinoids (8 are listed). These are neuromediators and neuromodulators synthesized in nerve cells and astrocytes “on demand” immediately with the entry of calcium into the neuron and they are not stored in vesicles. They are synthesized in the neuronal membrane from phospholipids. They have an inhibitory effect on the emission of dopamine, serotonin, glutamate and others. They have a retrograde synaptic signaling (from the postsynaptic neuron to the pre-synaptic). The most studied are: a)- the AEA for N-ArachidonoylEthanolAmide called Anandamide (from the Sanskrit ananda=felicity) isolated in 1992 by Mechoulam’s team; AEA is highly expressed in the hippocampus, cerebral cortex and cerebellum and also in the hypothalamus and brainstem. AEA has a high affinity for the CB1 receptor and a low affinity for CB2. AEA also acts on other systems such as vanilloid, peroxisome and glutamate receptors and activates transcription factors through the MAP-kinase pathway. AEA was also found in the cacao (di Tomaso E. et al, 1996). b)- the 2-AG for 2-Arachidonoylglycerol, a monoglyceride ester or ether, isolated in 1995. Has a high affinity for CB2 receptors, also for CB1. The binding of a ligand (AEA or 2-AG) on its receptor (CB1 or CB2) and the activation of the G-protein (GTP/GDP) are the first two steps required for the transmission of a signal inside the cell via a cascade of reactions. Also involved are adenylate cyclase, modulation of ion channels including calcium (Ca 2+) and potassium (K+), and the intervention of the phospholipase C.
3) Synthesis enzymes such as N-acyltransferase, phospholipases A2 and C.
4) Degradation enzymes. According Cravatt B.F. et al. 2001; Ueda N. et al. 2000, the 2 main ones are : a)-Fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) with a single transmembrane domaine, it degrades the bioactive fatty acid amides class including AEA (anandamide) and the 2-AG. FAAH is localized in the post-synaptic neurons. b)-Monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) inactivates 2-AG (2-Arachidonoylglycerol) at 85% and also AEA .
Thus, studies have been shown that the EndoCannabinoid System is involved in: memory, mood, appetite, sleep, pain response, nausea, emotions, thermoregulation, immunity, male and female fertility, reproductive activities, the reward system and the use of psychoactive substances.
Psychoactive substances act on this ECS circuit by modifying the chemical balance of the Nervous System, which, not being naturally and correctly regulated, will influence the control of movements and emotions, creating this euphoria and illusion of well-being and generating dependence more or less slowly, according to Thorndike’s Law of Effect (1911): “A response is more likely to be reproduced if it leads to satisfaction for the organism and abandoned if it results in dissatisfaction”.
The psychoactive substances interfere with specific areas of the brain, which is composed of 3 basic parts that according to the theory will define our personality and character traits according to their respective influence:
-a reptilian or archaic brain dating back circa 400 million years. It is quite reliable, fast, manages basic perceptions and functions including: food, sexuality, homeostasis, survival reactions (attack or flight), but is compulsive. -then comes the limbic brain of mammals, 100 million years ago with 2 parts: Paleolimbic of lower mammals and the Neolimbic which distinguishes the good from the bad. It develops the learning, memory and emotions, it is the heart of the reward and punishment system in humans. -and finally the cerebral cortex or neo-cortex of primates and then human beings. It is the place of analysis, decision-making, intelligence, creativity, has a notion of future, and made the language possible. The brain is composed of some 90 billion cells, composed of highly plasticated neurons and glial cells. Its development ends around the age of 25 with a significant transition during adolescence, the change from the dependence of childhood to the autonomy of adult.
At the brain level, the Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA) of the mesolimbic midbrain is one of the primitive regions of the brain. Its neurons synthesize the neurotransmitter dopamine which their axons direct to the nucleus accumbens. The VTA is also influenced by endorphins and is the target of opiate drugs (morphine and heroin). -The nucleus accumbens plays a central role in the reward circuit (Klawonn A.M. and Malenka R.C., 2018). Its activity is modulated by dopamine which promotes craving and reward while serotonin has an inhibitory role. This nucleus is also connected to other centers involved in the reward system, including the hypothalamus. -The prefrontal cortex, a more recent region, is a significant relay of the reward circuit. Its activity is also modulated by dopamine. -Two other centers of the limbic system participate in the reward circuit: the hippocampus, which is the pillar of memory and the amygdala, which records perceptions.
-The neurotransmitter dopamine (pleasure molecule) plays a central role in positive reinforcement and contributes to addiction. -The GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid), an inhibitor that is very present in the neurons of the cortex, participates in motor control and regulates anxiety. -The amino acid Glutamate is the most abundant excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain. It is associated with learning and memory. It regulates the release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens. (Glutamate is also a food additive: E621). Its membrane receptor is the NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartic).
The origin of the “high” or euphoria is due to the properties of THC which binds more stably than AEA to CB1 receptors (60% vs. 20%) resulting in an excessive increase in dopamine release and a prolonged excitation of meso-limbic dopaminergic neurons, meso-accumbic (the nucleus accumbens) and meso-cortical neurons of the brain, in the reward system and providing pleasure, which will lead to the drug search and then dependence.
The Adolescence:
Adolescent behavior is often characterized by impulsivity, sensation-seeking and risk-taking behavior. This is related to the sequential brain maturation with the accelerated maturation of limbic structures (sensitivity to emotional and social signals) and then of the prefrontal cortex (rational and plans ahead) which evolution towards maturity is slower and therefore delayed (Giedd, J.N. et al. 1999; Casey, B.J. et al. 2008). Therefore, teenagers can have deep and complex emotions but they cannot fully control them. Hence the risk-taking and impulsiveness without yet assuming the consequences. This makes adolescence a perilous time of life, but also full of possibilities and with a great adaptability thanks to brain plasticity and synaptic pruning.
The Pathologies :
Cannabis has been associated epidemiologically with significant fetal malformations and cancer induction in children and adult populations.
1) Testicular cancer is most common in youth between the ages of 15-35 using cannabis according to the Cancer Research Foundation. There is an increased risk of testicular germ cell tumor (Gurney J. et al. 2015) by deregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis. Indeed, CB1 and CB2 receptors are present in:
-the hypothalamus where THC blocks the hormone that controls sexual maturation at puberty and fertility, the ovulation hormone lutein and the testosterone;
-on testicular tissue, THC reduces testosterone production in Leydig cells and has a pro-apoptotic effect on Sertoli cells;
-on spermatozoa, THC alters concentration, count and motility with problems of infertility and impaired spermatogenesis (Gundersen T. D. et al. 2015). THC would be able to damage the DNA until the chromotripsis (bursting) of the chromosome with possibility of genetic transmission ( Reece A.S. and Hulse G.K. 2016).
2) Dong et al. 2019, already highlighted the neural and immune impact of cannabinoids on fetal and offspring development.
3)Hjorthoj C. et al 2023, clearly demonstrated an association between cannabis use disorder and schizophrenia affecting the way a person thinks, feels and behaves.
4)With a 20-year hindsight, the therapeutic legalization of cannabis in Colorado in 2000 has shown (Reece and Hulse, 2019) in women under 24 years of age consuming THC during their pregnancy, a 5-fold increase in teratogenic incidence in newborns such as spina bifida, microcephaly, trisomy 21, absence of partitions between the heart atria or ventricles, etc. These abnormalities may be correlated with the action of cannabinoids known to modify histones (including H3) as well as the methylation of Cytosine-Phosphate-Guanine sites of DNA, thus altering the regulatory systems of gene expression.
Costentin J. (CNPERT, 2020) reminds that THC consumption leads to epigenetic modifications that affect the immune system, cognitive activities, brain maturation, with the development of psychiatric disorders. In abortion products from cannabis-using mothers, the nucleus accumbens (in the limbic system) of these fetuses shows a decrease in mRNA (RNA messenger) coding for the dopaminergic D2 receptors and a rarefaction of these receptors. This under-expression altering the reward circuit would facilitate later the interest for drugs by the youth.
So, as far as the cannabis-youth relationship is concerned, -we need to tackle this widely popular substance very seriously and gather evidences against the harmful influence of biased and commercial arguments, -we need to make these data widely known to protect the young public and for the sake of future generations.
There are a large number of possible influences on adolescents such as protective and/or risk factors. They are : family, school and teachers, peers, neighborhood, leisure, media, culture and legislation. But the main one remains parents and parenting practices. Indeed, they can help (or not) to protect children by listening to and leading them by example.
Based on the contacts established across Europe by our volunteers with young people, parents, associations, teachers, social workers, health professionals, local and national leaders, security and police officers, The Truth About Drugs campaign was actively developed. This is a prevention campaign with education on health risks, aimed at youth and public awareness on the potential harms of marijuana and other illicit drugs, so that the risks are clearly understood.
« It is ignorance that blinds and misleads us. Open your eyes Ô miserable mortals » said Leonardo Da Vinci (1452-1519). Thus, empowered with the real facts on drugs, young people will be able to face with lucidity the different aspects of life problems related to drug use, to make the right decision and be able to fully realize their own potential.
This approach perfectly fit with the 2023 theme of the UN International Day: “People first: stop stigma and discrimination, strengthen prevention” .
“If things were a little better known and understood, we would all lead happier lives” L.Ron Hubbard (1965)
References:
Consult also the regulation in the EU: -Recreational use of cannabis – Laws and policies in selected EU Member States https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2023/749792/EPRS_BRI(2023)749792_EN.pdf
-International Day against Drug Abuse and Illicit Trafficking – EU action against illicit drugs https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/ATAG/2022/733548/EPRS_ATA(2022)733548_EN.pdf
