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Broad Implications: New Study Reveals Where Memory Fragments Are Stored

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Rockefeller University
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Broad Implications: New Study Reveals Where Memory Fragments Are Stored

The study shed new light on the process of memory recall.

Recalling memories requires the cooperation of several brain regions.

When you have a memorable evening at a restaurant, more than just the food stays in your memory. A vivid memory of the evening is created by the smells, the décor, the music played by the band, the conversations, and several other elements. Later, bringing back just one of these impressions could be enough to relive the entire experience.

According to recent research, complex memories in the brain are made up of a whole and its parts. The hippocampus, a part of the brain long thought to be the seat of memory, is where the general experience is kept, but the specific details are parsed and stored in a different part of the brain, the prefrontal cortex. In the future, this separation makes sure that exposure to any one cue will be enough to activate the prefrontal cortex, which will then access the hippocampus to remember the whole memory.


The research, which was published in Nature, sheds light on how the brain processes memories in different ways and offers new insight into how memories are recalled, which is a process that is less understood than memory storage.

It has been challenging to study memory as a distributed brain process, in part due to technical limitations. Priya Rajasethupathy, a neuroscientist at Rockefeller University and her colleagues developed novel techniques to simultaneously record and manipulate neural activity from multiple brain areas as mice navigated multisensory experiences, encountering various sights, sounds, and smells while in an endless corridor in virtual reality.

The researchers trained the mice to associate different rooms, which were composed of different combinations of the sensory cues, as rewarding or aversive experiences. Later on, nudged by a specific scent or sound, the mice were able to recall the broader experience and knew whether to happily expect sugar water or look out for an annoying puff of air.


The experiments demonstrated that while the entorhinal-hippocampal pathway, a well-studied circuit involving the hippocampus and its surrounding region, was essential for forming and storing the experiences, the individual sensory features were being shipped off to prefrontal neurons. Later, when mice encountered particular sensory features, a different circuit was engaged. This time, the prefrontal neurons communicated with the hippocampus to conjure the relevant global memory.

“This suggests that there’s a dedicated pathway for memory recall, separate from memory formation,” says Nakul Yadav, the study’s first author and a graduate student co-mentored by Rajasethupathy and by Conor Liston, a neuroscientist at Weill Cornell Medicine.

These findings have implications for the treatment of conditions such as Alzheimer’s disease, where the deficits are thought to be more related to memory recall than storage. The existence of separate storage and retrieval pathways in the brain suggests that targeting prefrontal recall pathways may be more therapeutically promising, Rajasethupathy says.

Reference: “Prefrontal feature representations drive memory recall” by Nakul Yadav, Chelsea Noble, James E. Niemeyer, Andrea Terceros, Jonathan Victor, Conor Liston, and Priyamvada Rajasethupathy, 13 July 2022, Nature.
DOI: 10.1038/s41586-022-04936-2

 

Heatwaves and Climate Change [Video]

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European Space Agency (ESA)
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Heatwaves and Climate Change [Video]

This image, which uses data from the Copernicus Sentinel-3 mission’s radiometer instrument, shows the temperature of the land surface in southern France, Spain, and northern Africa on the morning of July 17, 2022. It is worth noting the difference between air temperature and land-surface temperature. Air temperature, given in our daily weather forecasts, is a measure of how hot the air is above the ground. Land-surface temperature instead is a measure of how hot the actual surface would feel to the touch. The image clearly shows that, in some places, the surface of the land reached a whopping 55 °C (131 °F). Considering Copernicus Sentinel-3 acquired these data in the morning, the temperature would have increased through the afternoon. Credit: Contains modified Copernicus Sentinel data (2022), processed by ESA, CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO

The series of heatwaves we are currently experiencing in western Europe is a clear sign of human-induced global warming. ESA’s Clement Albergel explains how we monitor these events using satellites such as the Copernicus Sentinel-3 mission and puts them in the context of the long-term climate data record generated via ESA’s Climate Change Initiative.



Video Transcript:

The series of heatwaves we have been experiencing in Western Europe are the clearest sign of global warming caused by human activities, our emission of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere.

To better understand the variability of our climate system, we need observations. Satellite earth observations such as those operated by the European Space Agency in collaboration with the European Commission in the context of the Copernicus Program are particularly useful as they provide global coverage, uniformity, rapid measurement, and continuity.


Copernicus is powered by a dedicated family of satellites, the Sentinels.

Sentinel 3 is an instrument a radiometer that measures land surface temperature. In the last two weeks of July, it has measured record-breaking land surface temperature. More than 45 degrees celsius in the UK, more than 50 degrees celsius in France, and more than 60 in Spain.

We can also combine land surface temperature from Sentinel 3 with those from previous satellites in order to develop long time series. And that’s what we do in the context of ESA’s climate program, the climate change initiative.

We put together data from different satellites in order to develop global scale long-term satellite-derived time series of key components of the climate system, also known as essential climate variables. Land surface temperature is one of them.


We have recently released a 25 years climate data record of land surface temperature and the data indicate a stable increase of about 0.2 degrees celsius per decade on average at a global scale with strong regional variability.

Heat waves can also be followed by wildfire. Extremely high temperatures combined with low air humidity and dry vegetation increase the risk of wildfire in case there is a source of ignition.

Satellites are very useful as they permit the monitoring of different fire characteristics. From a risk assessment point of view, we can detect areas that are dry and prone to wildfire outbreaks, we can monitor actively flaming fires, smoldering fire, as well as burn area, the scar let on the ground by fire. We can monitor smoke plumes as well as trace gas in the atmosphere.

Another consequence of prolonged heat waves when combined to extremely low level of precipitation is droughts. Soils are getting drier and many rivers in Europe have now reached level low record.

Images acquired by Sentinel-2 show part of the Po Valley near Piacenza in Italy and revealed how the river has shrunk between June 2020 and June 2022. This is partially due to the lack of precipitation Northern Italy usually receives with extremely high temperatures and the lack of snow in the mountain that usually feeds the river.

 

Places of worship must be kept safe and accessible in times of peace and in conflict, OSCE human rights head says

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Newsdesk
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people inside room
Photo by Pedro Lima

WARSAW, 22 August 2022 — Establishing, maintaining, and accessing places and objects of worship or contemplation are crucial to the right to freedom of thought, conscience, religion or belief, which applies during conflict and in times of peace, said the OSCE Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR) on the International Day Commemorating the Victims of Acts of Violence Based on Religion.

“The OSCE region has a rich cultural and religious heritage, but religious buildings and relics are not just objects of the past — they’re profoundly important for living communities today,” said ODIHR Director Matteo Mecacci. “Attacks on places of worship go against both the letter and spirit of the right to freedom of thought, conscience, religion or belief. They must be protected to ensure communities know that their past is respected, and their future is safe.”

ODIHR’s most recent hate crime data reveals that 51% of all incidents reported to the Office were anti-religious hate crimes. Most of these crimes targeted property, such as mosques, synagogues, churches, and cemeteries, though it is widely accepted that the vast majority of hate crimes are never reported to the state authorities or to anyone else. UN figures also show that 175 cultural heritage sites in Ukraine have been damaged since 24 February 2022, of which 74 are religious sites.

Hatred and intolerance against people from particular religious communities rarely take place in isolation, but go together with other human rights violations. The overall effect of violence and discrimination is not only negative for the communities concerned, but also for the security situation across the OSCE region.

The harm can also be less obvious, with peaceful religious or belief communities struggling in some OSCE countries to register their religious buildings or facing mandatory registration systems, insurmountable bureaucracy, or arbitrary closure and confiscation of their property. This shows clearly that states have much progress to make in ensuring that freedom of thought, conscience, religion or belief is a reality for everyone.

ODIHR continues to assist the countries of the OSCE in living up to their commitments to respect this right as well as to work towards tolerant societies. More information about ODIHR’s work in this area is available here.

Do you know what gin is made of?

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News desk
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Gin is an English classic alcoholic drink made from juniper cones, almonds, coriander, pansy root, angelica and other ingredients. The taste and smell of high-quality gin must be accompanied by the predominant aroma of juniper cones; the drink is always colorless, transparent, without mud and sediment.

Origin:

The name “gin” is a shortened version of the older English form genever, also related to the French genièvre and the Dutch jenever – which, after all, means “juniper”. As a rule, the alcohol degree of classic gin should not fall below 37.5 degrees. And as for the upper limit, the decision remains with the manufacturer, as it is usually around 47 degrees. Naturally, today gin is associated in our minds more with England – but it was invented in the Netherlands as early as the 13th century. The English got to know him through the soldiers who participated in the wars of the Netherlands in the 17th century. And London gin as we know it now appeared about 150 years later. The famous combination of gin and tonic has its origins in India. The British colonial administration there, faced with tropical diseases, of which malaria was the most dangerous, sought ways to treat them. An effective antimalarial was quinine, which has a very bitter taste. In order to dilute this bitterness, gin was added to it. Today, most gin is consumed outside England Approximately 43% of the world’s production is consumed in the Philippines. Filipinos have even created a special concept for drinking gin – “Ginuman”.

Ingredients:

Common additions to gin in the past were turpentine and… sulfuric acid. The acid itself does not participate in the distillation, but adds additional flavor to the resulting drink. A double gin is made by redistilling the first gin, adding more botanicals. This gin is usually aged in wooden casks and retains a heavier, malty flavor that gives it a distinct whiskey likeness. Blended gin is produced by flavoring neutral spirits with essences and other flavors without redistillation. However, the level of such a drink as aroma, taste and price is much lower than that of distilled gin. Other ingredients are added to the gin to give it a completely unique taste: angelica roots and seeds, citrus peel, licorice roots, orris roots, almonds, cinnamon, grapefruit peel, lime peel, the tropical fruit longan , saffron, frankincense, cardamom, coriander, cassia bark (not apricot!), nutmeg, etc.

How to drink gin?

It is usually served as an aperitif. The moderate amount of gin brings a special charm to the proposed fish, meat and even vegetarian dishes. However, due to the excessive strength of dry gin, it is used much more often in various cocktails. Before serving, it is good to cool to 4-6°C. It is served in small glasses of up to 30-50 ml. What to drink gin with, apart from the classic tonic? We can mix the alcohol in proportions as desired with mineral water, various juices, and even coke or coffee. It is optimal to use juices with a bitter or sweet-sour taste: pineapple, cranberry, citrus fruits. The best mixing ratio is 50:50.

What appetizers go with gin?

Such a question is relevant only in relation to pure gin, because cocktails with it, by definition, do not need an accompanying snack. But, if it is an aperitif, the classic appetizer in this case is olives, pickled onions, lemon slices, marinated quail eggs with celery salt. (Celery salt is a specific seasoning in England and the USA and is ordinary table salt mixed with crushed celery seeds). The most important thing is to drink in moderation and not to forget that gin and antibiotics are absolutely incompatible!

Photo: iStock/Gulliver

Beards, baths, salt – The most unusual taxes in Tsarist Russia and the USSR

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News desk
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For beautiful eyes and a clean body, substantial sums were paid

The fees depended on the social status of the people

US residents pay taxes to the government for diapers, toilet bowls, coffee cup lids, and even medicine. The modern Russian tax system is not that complicated. However, Russian history is rich in strange, unusual and at times quite inhumane taxes and fees. Here are the most interesting of them.

Bathrooms

You might think that Peter I did not like pure people. Otherwise, how can one explain the fact that in 1704 he introduced a tax on baths? Payment for chimneys and pipes for a bath existed in Kievan Rus, but under Peter I in 1704 it became a full-fledged state tax on baths. In fact, the state encourages the construction of “commercial” (public) baths, from which the treasury receives revenue. And the owners of private baths have a choice: to bathe in public baths or to pay a tax. Boyars, people of the word and big merchants pay 3 rubles a year for home baths, ordinary nobles, merchants and priests 1 ruble, peasants, soldiers, Cossacks and coachmen 15 kopecks. The construction of new baths without prior permission from the state is subject to a fine of 50 rubles.

Beards

The emperor does not stop with the baths. After returning from a trip to Europe, Peter I decided to introduce people to European culture, in particular to change his appearance in a European way. So, in 1705 he introduced a tax on beards. The amount of payment depends on the class: wearing a beard costs large merchants 100 rubles a year, nobles, middle and small merchants, clerks and craftsmen – 60 rubles, and coachmen and coachmen – 30 rubles. All residents of Moscow, regardless of class, pay 30 rubles a year for a beard. Only the priests are not taxed. Villagers may wear beards for free in the village, but at the entrance to the town they pay 1 kopeck each.

Eye color

In 1704, Peter I announced the introduction of new taxes for the residents of the Ufa region. Most unusual is a special tax on eye color. Blue-eyed people pay the maximum rate of 39 kopecks a year, while brown-eyed county residents contribute only 6 kopecks to the treasury. The tax can be explained by the desire to limit the number of immigrants from the center of the country (local Bashkirs are mostly brown-eyed).

Salt

The salt tax in Russia has a rich history. The system for generating income from this product changes many times. Salt is produced both by state-owned saltworks and by private ones that pay duties. In February 1646, the government carried out a tax reform, introducing a new tax on salt imports at the rate of 20 kopecks per pood (16.38 kg). The price of salt increased 5 times – from 5 to 25 kopecks per poud. In December 1647, the tax was abolished because many merchants refused to sell salt. Then the government introduced an excise tax. This rate varies by region from 8 to 30 kopecks per pood, and the funds are intended to support salt production in a number of regions.

Matches

The excise tax on matches in Russia has been imposed several times. Initially, the tax on lighters was introduced in 1849 at the rate of 1 ruble for every 1000 pieces. The production of matches is allowed only in St. Petersburg and Moscow, and the fees go to the city budgets. In 1859 the manufacture of matches was permitted everywhere, and the excise was abolished.

Childless

The most famous tax in the USSR is the childlessness tax, introduced in 1941. The official reason was to attract additional funds to support mothers with many children. Childless men aged 20 to 50 and childless women aged 20 to 45 must contribute 5% of their salary to the state. A tax of 100 rubles per year (with an average income of 220 rubles per month) is levied on collective farmers and owners of individual farm holdings. Military personnel and their spouses, students of secondary and higher education institutions – men under the age of 25 and women under the age of 23, pensioners and persons for whom childbirth is contraindicated for health reasons and their spouses are exempt from payment.

Military levy

The war tax was introduced on January 1, 1942 in order to raise additional funds to finance government expenditures during the Great Patriotic War. It is paid by all citizens of the USSR who have reached the age of 18, with the exception of military personnel, members of their families, disabled persons, pensioners without additional income and citizens who do not have independent sources of funds. The amount of military tax depends on income. Over the years of the war, more than 72.1 billion rubles were collected.

Spectacles

The tax on public spectacles and entertainments was introduced in 1918. It is paid when visiting theaters, cinemas, circuses and other places of entertainment and varies from 10 kopecks to 1/3 of the ticket price. Since 1942, businesses and organizations have paid entertainment tax at rates as a percentage of gross receipts (5% to 55%) from paid film and circus performances, sports competitions. In 1975, the fee was abolished, retaining the tax on film exhibition receipts at 55% of gross receipts.

Photo by Pixabay / pexels

The DNA of Greek Feta cheese decoded

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News desk
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Greek scientists have decoded the DNA of the famous Feta cheese, writes Greek Reporter. Scientists from the Biomedical Research Foundation of the Academy of Athens studied a wide variety of cheeses produced in the country in an attempt to quantify the nutritional characteristics of the popular Greek cheese.

The research of the scientists showed that the product contains 489 different types of protein, making it one of the most protein-rich varieties of cheese in the whole world.

According to EU legislation on the products’ “protected designation of origin”, Feta must be produced using exclusively whole sheep’s milk or a mixture of sheep’s and goat’s milk. Goat’s milk can never be more than thirty percent of the total amount.

Cheese making is an ancient practice in the Mediterranean with the production of goat or sheep milk cheese dating back to the 8th century BC. in Greece. One myth relates that Apollo’s son Aristaeus, raised by nymphs, taught mankind the art of making cheese from milk. The product is also mentioned in Homer’s Odyssey, where the cyclops Polyphemus is described as a shepherd who lives in a cave full of cheese and milk taken from his flock.

Feta is a crumbly, soft, white cheese with a sharp taste. It is created by placing the fermented milk mixture in wooden barrels. The curd mixture is very compact and must be cut to fit into the barrels. The translated name means “piece” and most likely derives from this practice.

photo: Shutterstock

Why watermelon is good for health

By
Gaston de Persigny
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0

Watermelon is one of the preferred and favorite fruits in summer. Curiously, the green-red fruit was first cultivated more than 4,000 years ago in Northeast Africa. Sweet and juicy, watermelon is a suitable option for breakfast or dessert during the warm months, writes puls.bg.

Experts have been able to highlight numerous positive effects of the “giant fruit” on human health, due to the high content of nutrients, including antioxidants and vitamins A and C.

Watermelon helps to keep the body well hydrated

Regulating body temperature, maintaining normal organ function, delivering nutrients to cells are some of the bodily processes that rely on good hydration.

Watermelon contains 92% water, which makes it a suitable assistant in obtaining sufficient fluids for the body. Precisely because of its high water content, it also has a low caloric density. This, in turn, makes it a suitable food for regulating body weight and maintaining the feeling of satiety. The watery fruit contains 46 kcal per 152 gram serving.

Watermelon is full of valuable nutrients

The African fruit contains various nutrients, including potassium, magnesium, and vitamins A and C. It is also a rich source of citrulline, an amino acid that can improve physical performance in athletes.

A study found that regular intake of citrulline for at least 7 days improved aerobic performance by increasing the body’s production of nitric oxide.

This compound helps dilate blood vessels so the heart doesn’t have to work as hard to pump blood through the body.

The fruit also contains antioxidants, including vitamin C, carotenoids, lycopene and cucurbitacin E.

Watermelon keeps the heart healthy

Studies show that lycopene can help lower high blood pressure and cholesterol. It may also help prevent oxidative damage caused by high cholesterol levels.

In addition to sports, the citrulline contained in watermelon can increase nitric oxide levels in the body. It, in turn, helps blood vessels to dilate, which lowers blood pressure.

Watermelon also takes care of the eyes

The much-loved fruit can help prevent macular degeneration thanks to its lycopene content.

Its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties may help prevent and inhibit macular degeneration. The scientific community emphasizes that further research is needed on this issue.

Photo: iStock

What is happening to the lakes in Switzerland?

By
Gaston de Persigny
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0

The levels of Lake Constance, Four Cantons, Lugano and Valens have dropped sharply, here’s why

Water levels in four large Swiss lakes fell to record lows this August after scant rainfall this year, the Federal Environment Service said, as quoted by AFP.

Volumes of water flow from them into the Rhine River, which originates in the Swiss Alps, but none of them had water levels this low in August.

“We have a low water level situation in Switzerland, in particular in the central plateau and south of Ticino” in the Italian-speaking part of the country, Michele Oberhenzli, who is in charge of hydrological data at the Federal Environment Office, said today.

The reason is the lack of rainfall in 2022, she explained to AFP.

The four Great Lakes are not the only ones affected. Lake Maggiore, whose level of 193m is a record low, and Lake Zug “continue to show values ​​well below average”, Oberhenzli said.

With the exception of Lake Jura and Lake Thun, the levels of all of Switzerland’s large lakes are also below average.

Photo by H. Emre / pexels

The exotic island nation of Vanuatu has an ambitious climate plan

By
Gaston de Persigny
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0

The Pacific island nation is making an impact in international climate efforts

The Pacific nation of Vanuatu has launched one of the world’s most ambitious climate policies, pledging to use 100% renewable energy for electricity generation by 2030 and setting ambitious targets for losses and damages, the Guardian reports.

The announcement is yet another example of the small island nation making an impact in international climate efforts.

At last year’s UN climate summit in Glasgow, all countries were called on to “review and strengthen” their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) for climate action by the end of 2022. Vanuatu is one of only 12 countries who have done so, and its ambitious goals have been praised by regional experts.

“They really set an example for the rest of the world,” says Tagaloa Cooper-Halo, director of the Climate Change Resilience Program at the Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Program (SPREP).

“Vanuatu is leading by example in many ways, even though it has negligible emissions. They are taking the lead by presenting their plan. This has been a monumental effort by their government and all stakeholders because it takes a lot of work and coordination to get there announcement.”

Vanuatu is already a carbon-negative country – meaning it absorbs more emissions than it produces – but is committed to going even further by phasing out fossil fuels almost entirely and hopes by 2030 to generate 100 % from renewable sources.

They are also calling for the rapid establishment of a loss and damage financing mechanism to help vulnerable communities.

According to the government, the cost of meeting Vanuatu’s revised commitments is estimated at $1.2 billion by 2030.

“Thirty years ago, Vanuatu was the first nation in the world to call on climate polluters to pay for the permanent losses and irreversible damage caused by their emissions,” said Dr Wesley Morgan, senior researcher at the Climate Council.

“Today, Vanuatu is calling for the creation of a new loss and damage financing mechanism at the UN. To be an effective Pacific ally on climate action, Australia must support the creation of a new loss and damage financing mechanism.”

The move also sets the tone for the Pacific region’s preparations for the COP27 summit to be held in Cairo in November.

Vanuatu, which is rated by the United Nations as the country most at risk of natural disasters, is also currently pushing for the International Court of Justice (ICJ) to issue an advisory opinion on climate-related damage.

“The Government of Vanuatu has been very brave in seeking the opinion of the International Court of Justice and it is all good for the Pacific,” Cooper-Hallow said.

According to Vanuatu’s government, more than 80 countries from around the world support its bid to obtain an advisory opinion from the IC before a vote in the UN General Assembly at its upcoming session.

Photo: iStock by Getty Images

That‘s why we should drink tomato juice every day!

By
Gaston de Persigny
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0

Tomato juice is great for many reasons: it tastes great, it’s very fresh and it energizes the body. Another good reason to drink tomato juice is that unlike fruit juices, which are cheaper options and usually have lots of preservatives, sweeteners and other additives, tomato juice is diluted with just a little salt. Tomato juice can ensure that your body does not receive useless or dangerous substances with every sip. Tomato juice preserves the integrity of the original state of the tomatoes. Let’s see the benefits of tomato juice and drinking it every day.

Low calorie

Tomato juice has fewer calories than most fruit and vegetable juices because it is not squeezed from fresh fruit and contains sweeteners. One hundred grams of tomato juice has about 20 kcal. Many diets include tomato juice as a component. Tomato juice is useful for diabetics or overweight people, and even better if it is prepared by yourself. Juicing tomatoes is easy without a juicer and can be added to a slimming drink. What will happen if you drink tomato juice every day?

It contains many vitamins

Tomatoes contain a lot of beta-carotene (vitamin A in finished form), C, P and E, as well as iron, copper, manganese, calcium, potassium, chromium, sulphur, nickel, boron, chlorine and fluorine. The body’s problems related to a slow metabolism could be solved by regular intake of tomato juice, along with other minerals and biologically active ingredients. All of them are indispensable for the body, which makes this combination unique. Reducing Cholesterol Levels by Consuming Tomato Juice Tomato juice contains a lot of fiber, which helps the body process digestion. Fiber helps the body remove bad cholesterol, which can block blood vessels and be the beginning of heart disease.

Great benefits of tomatoes

 Helps the peristalsis of the intestines Tomato juice helps patients who have constipation. In addition to providing fiber that helps the intestines function, tomato juice contains substances that increase the strength of the intestinal wall, antibacterial and anti-inflammatory ingredients, and chemicals that help with stomach acidity.

Tomato juice is also useful for patients suffering from duodenal diseases. The body eliminates toxins when consuming tomato juice Tomato juice is beneficial for people who have been intoxicated by substances in their body (such as alcohol). The juice is rich in sulfur and chlorine compounds, which favor the work of the liver and kidneys. It can also help people who have kidney or liver disease as it is a mild diuretic and can be used in a mixture with cabbage juice (1 part tomato juice to 1 part cabbage juice). The article is for informational purposes only and is not a recommendation or a substitute for professional consultation.

Photo by Charlotte May / pexels

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