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Do you know what gin is made of?

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Gin is an English classic alcoholic drink made from juniper cones, almonds, coriander, pansy root, angelica and other ingredients. The taste and smell of high-quality gin must be accompanied by the predominant aroma of juniper cones; the drink is always colorless, transparent, without mud and sediment.

Origin:

The name “gin” is a shortened version of the older English form genever, also related to the French genièvre and the Dutch jenever – which, after all, means “juniper”. As a rule, the alcohol degree of classic gin should not fall below 37.5 degrees. And as for the upper limit, the decision remains with the manufacturer, as it is usually around 47 degrees. Naturally, today gin is associated in our minds more with England – but it was invented in the Netherlands as early as the 13th century. The English got to know him through the soldiers who participated in the wars of the Netherlands in the 17th century. And London gin as we know it now appeared about 150 years later. The famous combination of gin and tonic has its origins in India. The British colonial administration there, faced with tropical diseases, of which malaria was the most dangerous, sought ways to treat them. An effective antimalarial was quinine, which has a very bitter taste. In order to dilute this bitterness, gin was added to it. Today, most gin is consumed outside England Approximately 43% of the world’s production is consumed in the Philippines. Filipinos have even created a special concept for drinking gin – “Ginuman”.

Ingredients:

Common additions to gin in the past were turpentine and… sulfuric acid. The acid itself does not participate in the distillation, but adds additional flavor to the resulting drink. A double gin is made by redistilling the first gin, adding more botanicals. This gin is usually aged in wooden casks and retains a heavier, malty flavor that gives it a distinct whiskey likeness. Blended gin is produced by flavoring neutral spirits with essences and other flavors without redistillation. However, the level of such a drink as aroma, taste and price is much lower than that of distilled gin. Other ingredients are added to the gin to give it a completely unique taste: angelica roots and seeds, citrus peel, licorice roots, orris roots, almonds, cinnamon, grapefruit peel, lime peel, the tropical fruit longan , saffron, frankincense, cardamom, coriander, cassia bark (not apricot!), nutmeg, etc.

How to drink gin?

It is usually served as an aperitif. The moderate amount of gin brings a special charm to the proposed fish, meat and even vegetarian dishes. However, due to the excessive strength of dry gin, it is used much more often in various cocktails. Before serving, it is good to cool to 4-6°C. It is served in small glasses of up to 30-50 ml. What to drink gin with, apart from the classic tonic? We can mix the alcohol in proportions as desired with mineral water, various juices, and even coke or coffee. It is optimal to use juices with a bitter or sweet-sour taste: pineapple, cranberry, citrus fruits. The best mixing ratio is 50:50.

What appetizers go with gin?

Such a question is relevant only in relation to pure gin, because cocktails with it, by definition, do not need an accompanying snack. But, if it is an aperitif, the classic appetizer in this case is olives, pickled onions, lemon slices, marinated quail eggs with celery salt. (Celery salt is a specific seasoning in England and the USA and is ordinary table salt mixed with crushed celery seeds). The most important thing is to drink in moderation and not to forget that gin and antibiotics are absolutely incompatible!

Photo: iStock/Gulliver

Beards, baths, salt – The most unusual taxes in Tsarist Russia and the USSR

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For beautiful eyes and a clean body, substantial sums were paid

The fees depended on the social status of the people

US residents pay taxes to the government for diapers, toilet bowls, coffee cup lids, and even medicine. The modern Russian tax system is not that complicated. However, Russian history is rich in strange, unusual and at times quite inhumane taxes and fees. Here are the most interesting of them.

Bathrooms

You might think that Peter I did not like pure people. Otherwise, how can one explain the fact that in 1704 he introduced a tax on baths? Payment for chimneys and pipes for a bath existed in Kievan Rus, but under Peter I in 1704 it became a full-fledged state tax on baths. In fact, the state encourages the construction of “commercial” (public) baths, from which the treasury receives revenue. And the owners of private baths have a choice: to bathe in public baths or to pay a tax. Boyars, people of the word and big merchants pay 3 rubles a year for home baths, ordinary nobles, merchants and priests 1 ruble, peasants, soldiers, Cossacks and coachmen 15 kopecks. The construction of new baths without prior permission from the state is subject to a fine of 50 rubles.

Beards

The emperor does not stop with the baths. After returning from a trip to Europe, Peter I decided to introduce people to European culture, in particular to change his appearance in a European way. So, in 1705 he introduced a tax on beards. The amount of payment depends on the class: wearing a beard costs large merchants 100 rubles a year, nobles, middle and small merchants, clerks and craftsmen – 60 rubles, and coachmen and coachmen – 30 rubles. All residents of Moscow, regardless of class, pay 30 rubles a year for a beard. Only the priests are not taxed. Villagers may wear beards for free in the village, but at the entrance to the town they pay 1 kopeck each.

Eye color

In 1704, Peter I announced the introduction of new taxes for the residents of the Ufa region. Most unusual is a special tax on eye color. Blue-eyed people pay the maximum rate of 39 kopecks a year, while brown-eyed county residents contribute only 6 kopecks to the treasury. The tax can be explained by the desire to limit the number of immigrants from the center of the country (local Bashkirs are mostly brown-eyed).

Salt

The salt tax in Russia has a rich history. The system for generating income from this product changes many times. Salt is produced both by state-owned saltworks and by private ones that pay duties. In February 1646, the government carried out a tax reform, introducing a new tax on salt imports at the rate of 20 kopecks per pood (16.38 kg). The price of salt increased 5 times – from 5 to 25 kopecks per poud. In December 1647, the tax was abolished because many merchants refused to sell salt. Then the government introduced an excise tax. This rate varies by region from 8 to 30 kopecks per pood, and the funds are intended to support salt production in a number of regions.

Matches

The excise tax on matches in Russia has been imposed several times. Initially, the tax on lighters was introduced in 1849 at the rate of 1 ruble for every 1000 pieces. The production of matches is allowed only in St. Petersburg and Moscow, and the fees go to the city budgets. In 1859 the manufacture of matches was permitted everywhere, and the excise was abolished.

Childless

The most famous tax in the USSR is the childlessness tax, introduced in 1941. The official reason was to attract additional funds to support mothers with many children. Childless men aged 20 to 50 and childless women aged 20 to 45 must contribute 5% of their salary to the state. A tax of 100 rubles per year (with an average income of 220 rubles per month) is levied on collective farmers and owners of individual farm holdings. Military personnel and their spouses, students of secondary and higher education institutions – men under the age of 25 and women under the age of 23, pensioners and persons for whom childbirth is contraindicated for health reasons and their spouses are exempt from payment.

Military levy

The war tax was introduced on January 1, 1942 in order to raise additional funds to finance government expenditures during the Great Patriotic War. It is paid by all citizens of the USSR who have reached the age of 18, with the exception of military personnel, members of their families, disabled persons, pensioners without additional income and citizens who do not have independent sources of funds. The amount of military tax depends on income. Over the years of the war, more than 72.1 billion rubles were collected.

Spectacles

The tax on public spectacles and entertainments was introduced in 1918. It is paid when visiting theaters, cinemas, circuses and other places of entertainment and varies from 10 kopecks to 1/3 of the ticket price. Since 1942, businesses and organizations have paid entertainment tax at rates as a percentage of gross receipts (5% to 55%) from paid film and circus performances, sports competitions. In 1975, the fee was abolished, retaining the tax on film exhibition receipts at 55% of gross receipts.

Photo by Pixabay / pexels

The DNA of Greek Feta cheese decoded

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Greek scientists have decoded the DNA of the famous Feta cheese, writes Greek Reporter. Scientists from the Biomedical Research Foundation of the Academy of Athens studied a wide variety of cheeses produced in the country in an attempt to quantify the nutritional characteristics of the popular Greek cheese.

The research of the scientists showed that the product contains 489 different types of protein, making it one of the most protein-rich varieties of cheese in the whole world.

According to EU legislation on the products’ “protected designation of origin”, Feta must be produced using exclusively whole sheep’s milk or a mixture of sheep’s and goat’s milk. Goat’s milk can never be more than thirty percent of the total amount.

Cheese making is an ancient practice in the Mediterranean with the production of goat or sheep milk cheese dating back to the 8th century BC. in Greece. One myth relates that Apollo’s son Aristaeus, raised by nymphs, taught mankind the art of making cheese from milk. The product is also mentioned in Homer’s Odyssey, where the cyclops Polyphemus is described as a shepherd who lives in a cave full of cheese and milk taken from his flock.

Feta is a crumbly, soft, white cheese with a sharp taste. It is created by placing the fermented milk mixture in wooden barrels. The curd mixture is very compact and must be cut to fit into the barrels. The translated name means “piece” and most likely derives from this practice.

photo: Shutterstock

Why watermelon is good for health

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Gaston de Persigny
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Watermelon is one of the preferred and favorite fruits in summer. Curiously, the green-red fruit was first cultivated more than 4,000 years ago in Northeast Africa. Sweet and juicy, watermelon is a suitable option for breakfast or dessert during the warm months, writes puls.bg.

Experts have been able to highlight numerous positive effects of the “giant fruit” on human health, due to the high content of nutrients, including antioxidants and vitamins A and C.

Watermelon helps to keep the body well hydrated

Regulating body temperature, maintaining normal organ function, delivering nutrients to cells are some of the bodily processes that rely on good hydration.

Watermelon contains 92% water, which makes it a suitable assistant in obtaining sufficient fluids for the body. Precisely because of its high water content, it also has a low caloric density. This, in turn, makes it a suitable food for regulating body weight and maintaining the feeling of satiety. The watery fruit contains 46 kcal per 152 gram serving.

Watermelon is full of valuable nutrients

The African fruit contains various nutrients, including potassium, magnesium, and vitamins A and C. It is also a rich source of citrulline, an amino acid that can improve physical performance in athletes.

A study found that regular intake of citrulline for at least 7 days improved aerobic performance by increasing the body’s production of nitric oxide.

This compound helps dilate blood vessels so the heart doesn’t have to work as hard to pump blood through the body.

The fruit also contains antioxidants, including vitamin C, carotenoids, lycopene and cucurbitacin E.

Watermelon keeps the heart healthy

Studies show that lycopene can help lower high blood pressure and cholesterol. It may also help prevent oxidative damage caused by high cholesterol levels.

In addition to sports, the citrulline contained in watermelon can increase nitric oxide levels in the body. It, in turn, helps blood vessels to dilate, which lowers blood pressure.

Watermelon also takes care of the eyes

The much-loved fruit can help prevent macular degeneration thanks to its lycopene content.

Its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties may help prevent and inhibit macular degeneration. The scientific community emphasizes that further research is needed on this issue.

Photo: iStock

What is happening to the lakes in Switzerland?

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Gaston de Persigny
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The levels of Lake Constance, Four Cantons, Lugano and Valens have dropped sharply, here’s why

Water levels in four large Swiss lakes fell to record lows this August after scant rainfall this year, the Federal Environment Service said, as quoted by AFP.

Volumes of water flow from them into the Rhine River, which originates in the Swiss Alps, but none of them had water levels this low in August.

“We have a low water level situation in Switzerland, in particular in the central plateau and south of Ticino” in the Italian-speaking part of the country, Michele Oberhenzli, who is in charge of hydrological data at the Federal Environment Office, said today.

The reason is the lack of rainfall in 2022, she explained to AFP.

The four Great Lakes are not the only ones affected. Lake Maggiore, whose level of 193m is a record low, and Lake Zug “continue to show values ​​well below average”, Oberhenzli said.

With the exception of Lake Jura and Lake Thun, the levels of all of Switzerland’s large lakes are also below average.

Photo by H. Emre / pexels

The exotic island nation of Vanuatu has an ambitious climate plan

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Gaston de Persigny
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The Pacific island nation is making an impact in international climate efforts

The Pacific nation of Vanuatu has launched one of the world’s most ambitious climate policies, pledging to use 100% renewable energy for electricity generation by 2030 and setting ambitious targets for losses and damages, the Guardian reports.

The announcement is yet another example of the small island nation making an impact in international climate efforts.

At last year’s UN climate summit in Glasgow, all countries were called on to “review and strengthen” their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) for climate action by the end of 2022. Vanuatu is one of only 12 countries who have done so, and its ambitious goals have been praised by regional experts.

“They really set an example for the rest of the world,” says Tagaloa Cooper-Halo, director of the Climate Change Resilience Program at the Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Program (SPREP).

“Vanuatu is leading by example in many ways, even though it has negligible emissions. They are taking the lead by presenting their plan. This has been a monumental effort by their government and all stakeholders because it takes a lot of work and coordination to get there announcement.”

Vanuatu is already a carbon-negative country – meaning it absorbs more emissions than it produces – but is committed to going even further by phasing out fossil fuels almost entirely and hopes by 2030 to generate 100 % from renewable sources.

They are also calling for the rapid establishment of a loss and damage financing mechanism to help vulnerable communities.

According to the government, the cost of meeting Vanuatu’s revised commitments is estimated at $1.2 billion by 2030.

“Thirty years ago, Vanuatu was the first nation in the world to call on climate polluters to pay for the permanent losses and irreversible damage caused by their emissions,” said Dr Wesley Morgan, senior researcher at the Climate Council.

“Today, Vanuatu is calling for the creation of a new loss and damage financing mechanism at the UN. To be an effective Pacific ally on climate action, Australia must support the creation of a new loss and damage financing mechanism.”

The move also sets the tone for the Pacific region’s preparations for the COP27 summit to be held in Cairo in November.

Vanuatu, which is rated by the United Nations as the country most at risk of natural disasters, is also currently pushing for the International Court of Justice (ICJ) to issue an advisory opinion on climate-related damage.

“The Government of Vanuatu has been very brave in seeking the opinion of the International Court of Justice and it is all good for the Pacific,” Cooper-Hallow said.

According to Vanuatu’s government, more than 80 countries from around the world support its bid to obtain an advisory opinion from the IC before a vote in the UN General Assembly at its upcoming session.

Photo: iStock by Getty Images

That‘s why we should drink tomato juice every day!

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Gaston de Persigny
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Tomato juice is great for many reasons: it tastes great, it’s very fresh and it energizes the body. Another good reason to drink tomato juice is that unlike fruit juices, which are cheaper options and usually have lots of preservatives, sweeteners and other additives, tomato juice is diluted with just a little salt. Tomato juice can ensure that your body does not receive useless or dangerous substances with every sip. Tomato juice preserves the integrity of the original state of the tomatoes. Let’s see the benefits of tomato juice and drinking it every day.

Low calorie

Tomato juice has fewer calories than most fruit and vegetable juices because it is not squeezed from fresh fruit and contains sweeteners. One hundred grams of tomato juice has about 20 kcal. Many diets include tomato juice as a component. Tomato juice is useful for diabetics or overweight people, and even better if it is prepared by yourself. Juicing tomatoes is easy without a juicer and can be added to a slimming drink. What will happen if you drink tomato juice every day?

It contains many vitamins

Tomatoes contain a lot of beta-carotene (vitamin A in finished form), C, P and E, as well as iron, copper, manganese, calcium, potassium, chromium, sulphur, nickel, boron, chlorine and fluorine. The body’s problems related to a slow metabolism could be solved by regular intake of tomato juice, along with other minerals and biologically active ingredients. All of them are indispensable for the body, which makes this combination unique. Reducing Cholesterol Levels by Consuming Tomato Juice Tomato juice contains a lot of fiber, which helps the body process digestion. Fiber helps the body remove bad cholesterol, which can block blood vessels and be the beginning of heart disease.

Great benefits of tomatoes

 Helps the peristalsis of the intestines Tomato juice helps patients who have constipation. In addition to providing fiber that helps the intestines function, tomato juice contains substances that increase the strength of the intestinal wall, antibacterial and anti-inflammatory ingredients, and chemicals that help with stomach acidity.

Tomato juice is also useful for patients suffering from duodenal diseases. The body eliminates toxins when consuming tomato juice Tomato juice is beneficial for people who have been intoxicated by substances in their body (such as alcohol). The juice is rich in sulfur and chlorine compounds, which favor the work of the liver and kidneys. It can also help people who have kidney or liver disease as it is a mild diuretic and can be used in a mixture with cabbage juice (1 part tomato juice to 1 part cabbage juice). The article is for informational purposes only and is not a recommendation or a substitute for professional consultation.

Photo by Charlotte May / pexels

Norway prosecutes 30 Royal Guards for drug use

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Gaston de Persigny
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Thirty members of Norway’s prestigious Royal Guards will be dismissed from service for using drugs while on leave, Norway’s armed forces said, as quoted by the Associated Press.

They received information about the use of prohibited substances during a private party this summer. Initially, five people admitted that they had taken drugs, and then another 25 people did the same. All thirty are serving in His Majesty’s Royal Guards, Norwegian TV and newspaper Verdens Gang reported.

A spokesman for the armed forces told Norwegian television that these conscripts would be removed from the army.

They did not specify what kind of drugs they used. In 2015, Norway made military service compulsory for men and women.

“All members of the armed forces are under an obligation to report if they witness or find out that military personnel have taken drugs,” the spokesman added to public television.

The Royal Guard is tasked with protecting the Norwegian royal family. The soldiers from its composition perform the changing of the guard in front of the palace in Oslo every day.

The unit also participates in official ceremonies, such as the awarding of the Nobel Peace Prize.

Magnetic storms: how they affect health and how to protect ourselves from them

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News desk
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The geomagnetic situation on our planet remains unstable over the weekend. After the strong magnetic storm on August 18, a weak G1 magnetic storm was recorded today after another coronal mass ejection (CME) from the Sun hit our planet’s magnetic field. Even a weak CME strike can cause a G1 storm, so experts advise to keep an eye on updated information, writes SpaceWeather.com. During magnetic storms, experts advise not to expose yourself to unnecessary stress. What is this phenomenon and how does it affect the planet and man? Magnetic storms usually occur on average 5-6 times a year and can last for several days, but recently more “solar attacks” have been recorded on Earth. This is related to the increased activity of the Sun, which is moving towards its peak in the 25th solar cycle. Solar flares are expected to become more frequent until 2025, after which solar activity will begin to decline. When the Sun sends a stream of solar wind or ejects a coronal mass and it hits the Earth’s magnetic field, a geomagnetic storm is registered on our planet. The US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) has divided solar flares as well as geomagnetic storms into 5 categories according to their strength – from G1 to G5, with G1 being the weakest and G5 being extreme. storm, and it could cause serious problems in Earth’s power transmission and radio communication systems, as well as cause damage to orbital satellites and GPS systems. Usually, geomagnetic storms do not pose a serious danger, but they can complicate the lives of those who have health problems. Let us tell you what a magnetic storm is and how you can survive it.

What is a magnetic storm?

Around the Earth there is an invisible shell – the magnetosphere, which protects our planet from solar radiation. From space, it is affected by the flow of the solar wind – that is the name of the ionized particles that are constantly scattered from the Sun at a speed of 400 km/s. Normally, the pressure of the solar wind and the pressure of the Earth’s magnetic envelope are equal. But when eruptions occur on the Sun, the speed of the solar wind increases, the balance of pressure changes, the magnetosphere seems to shrink over the Earth, and the magnitudes of the currents begin to change in it. Scientists call this a geomagnetic storm. The eruptions of some young stars are so powerful that they can destroy the atmospheres of their planets. The activity of the Sun is lower, but it can still affect Earthlings, causing interference in radio communications and malfunctions in the operation of appliances.

Is there a danger to people?

There is no consensus among scientists about how this natural phenomenon affects humans and animals. Research shows that during the period of magnetic storms, the number of deaths from myocardial infarction and stroke increases. But this increase is insignificant (about 20%), moreover, it is only about statistics. It is difficult to assess the impact of a particular geomagnetic event on human health. “In order to conduct a study of the impact of a magnetic storm on human health and condition, it is necessary to have clear criteria that can be measured,” Alexey Struminsky, a leading researcher at the Institute for Space Research of the Russian Academy of Sciences, told TASS. – Headache or tachycardia is not a criterion, such symptoms can be caused by a number of other reasons, by a change in weather, for example, a change in atmospheric pressure. But a magnetic storm doesn’t affect atmospheric pressure.”

During magnetic storms, people who suffer from hypertension should drink more water and reduce their salt intake, as salt retains fluids in the body and leads to an increase in blood pressure. Hypotonics can take a tonic tincture of Eleutherococcus or lemon grass. These are the advices of general practitioner Elena Tikhomirova. But many doctors have a different opinion. According to some of them, the record solar flares observed in recent days may affect the well-being of weather-sensitive people. According to some scientists, the mechanisms of the impact of electromagnetic interference on people are poorly understood. However, even in those who are not aware of the fact of a solar flare, there is a deterioration in well-being. Several effects of exposure to magnetic field disturbances due to solar flares have been hypothesized: increased blood pressure, reduced work capacity, headaches, increased anxiety, and exacerbation of chronic diseases, including allergies. There is an opinion that a person instinctively perceives fluctuations in the Earth’s magnetic background as a threat to life. And the increase in stress hormones – cortisol and adrenaline – leads to spasm of blood vessels and increased pressure.

The advice of doctors

Although scientists have not yet sufficiently studied how the fluctuations of the magnetic field affect the human body, doctors advise people who do not tolerate pressure spikes to take insurance on days of magnetic storms and follow simple rules. “On such days, we observe that in hypertensives the pressure jumps, and in hypotensives, on the contrary, it drops – explains the therapist Elena Tikhomirova. – To level these problems, hypertensives should drink more water and reduce salt intake during this period, because salt retains fluid in the body and leads to an increase in pressure. And hypotensive patients can take a tonic tincture of eleuterococcus or lemongrass. During magnetic storms, it is also important that weather-sensitive people get enough sleep, avoid increased stress, sports and tiring shopping trips.

Photo: NOAA

MIT Researchers 3D Print Precise Plasma Sensors for Satellites

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Guest Author
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MIT Researchers 3D Print Precise Plasma Sensors for Satellites

MIT researchers have demonstrated a 3D-printed plasma sensor for orbiting spacecraft that works just as well as much more expensive, semiconductor sensors. These durable, precise sensors could be used effectively on inexpensive, lightweight satellites known as CubeSats, which are commonly utilized for environmental monitoring or weather prediction. Credit: Figure courtesy of the researchers and edited by MIT News

Cheap and quick to produce, these digitally manufactured plasma sensors could help scientists predict the weather or study climate change.

Scientists at MIT have created the first completely digitally manufactured plasma sensors for satellites. These plasma sensors, also known as retarding potential analyzers (RPAs), are used by orbiting spacecraft to determine the chemical composition and ion energy distribution of the atmosphere.

The 3D-printed and laser-cut hardware performed as well as state-of-the-art semiconductor plasma sensors. Due to the manufacturing process, which requires a cleanroom, semiconductor plasma sensors are expensive and require weeks of intricate fabrication. By contrast, these 3D-printed sensors can be produced for tens of dollars in a matter of days.

Due to their low cost and speedy production, the new sensors are ideal for CubeSats. These inexpensive, low-power, and lightweight satellites are often used for communication and environmental monitoring in Earth’s upper atmosphere.

The team of researchers developed RPAs using a glass-ceramic material that is more resilient than traditional sensor materials like silicon and thin-film coatings. By using the glass-ceramic in a fabrication process that was developed for 3D printing with plastics, they were able to construct sensors with complex shapes that can withstand the wide temperature swings a spacecraft would encounter in lower Earth orbit.

“Additive manufacturing can make a big difference in the future of space hardware. Some people think that when you 3D-print something, you have to concede less performance. But we’ve shown that is not always the case. Sometimes there is nothing to trade off,” says Luis Fernando Velásquez-García, a principal scientist in MIT’s Microsystems Technology Laboratories (MTL) and senior author of a paper presenting the plasma sensors.

Joining Velásquez-García on the paper are lead author and MTL postdoc Javier Izquierdo-Reyes; graduate student Zoey Bigelow; and postdoc Nicholas K. Lubinsky. The research is published in Additive Manufacturing.

Versatile sensors

An RPA was first used in a space mission all the way back in 1959. The sensors detect the energy in ions, or charged particles, that are floating in plasma, which is a superheated mix of molecules present in the Earth’s upper atmosphere. Aboard an orbiting spacecraft like a CubeSat, the versatile instruments measure energy and conduct chemical analyses that can help scientists predict the weather or monitor climate change.

The sensors contain a series of electrically charged meshes dotted with tiny holes. As plasma passes through the holes, electrons and other particles are stripped away until only ions remain. These ions create an electric current that the sensor measures and analyzes.

Key to the success of an RPA is the housing structure that aligns the meshes. It must be electrically insulating while also able to withstand sudden, drastic swings in temperature. The researchers used a printable, glass-ceramic material known as Vitrolite that exhibits these properties.

Pioneered in the early 20th century, Vitrolite was often used in colorful tiles that became a common sight in art deco buildings.

The durable material can also withstand temperatures as high as 800 degrees Celsius (1472 degrees Fahrenheit) without breaking down, whereas polymers used in semiconductor RPAs start to melt at 400 degrees Celsius (752 degrees Fahrenheit).

“When you make this sensor in the cleanroom, you don’t have the same degree of freedom to define materials and structures and how they interact together. What made this possible is the latest developments in additive manufacturing,” Velásquez-García says.

Rethinking fabrication

The 3D printing process for ceramics usually involves ceramic powder that is hit with a laser to fuse it into shapes. However, this process often leaves the material coarse and creates weak points due to the high heat from the lasers.

Instead, the MIT scientists used vat polymerization, a process introduced decades ago for additive manufacturing with polymers or resins. With vat polymerization, a 3D structure is built one layer at a time by submerging it repeatedly into a vat of liquid material, in this case, Vitrolite. Ultraviolet light is used to cure the material after each layer is added, and then the platform is submerged in the vat again. Each layer is only 100 microns thick (roughly the diameter of a human hair), enabling the creation of smooth, pore-free, complex ceramic shapes.

In digital manufacturing, objects described in a design file can be very intricate. This precision allowed the researchers to create laser-cut meshes with unique shapes so the holes lined up perfectly when they were set inside the RPA housing. This enables more ions to pass through, which leads to higher-resolution measurements.

Because the sensors were cheap to produce and could be fabricated so quickly, the team prototyped four unique designs.

While one design was especially effective at capturing and measuring a wide range of plasmas, like those a satellite would encounter in orbit, another was well-suited for sensing extremely dense and cold plasmas, which are typically only measurable using ultraprecise semiconductor devices.

This high precision could enable 3D-printed sensors for applications in fusion energy research or supersonic flight. The rapid prototyping process could even spur more innovation in satellite and spacecraft design, Velásquez-García adds.

“If you want to innovate, you need to be able to fail and afford the risk. Additive manufacturing is a very different way to make space hardware. I can make space hardware and if it fails, it doesn’t matter because I can make a new version very quickly and inexpensively, and really iterate on the design. It is an ideal sandbox for researchers,” he says.

While Velásquez-García is pleased with these sensors, he wants to enhance the fabrication process in the future. Reducing the thickness of layers or pixel size in glass-ceramic vat polymerization could create complex hardware that is even more precise. Furthermore, fully additively manufacturing the sensors would make them compatible with in-space manufacturing. He also wants to explore the use of artificial intelligence to optimize sensor design for specific use cases, such as greatly reducing their mass while ensuring they remain structurally sound.

Reference: “Compact Retarding Potential Analyzers Enabled by Glass-Ceramic Vat Polymerization for CubeSat and Laboratory Plasma Diagnostics” by Javier Izquierdo-Reyes, Zoey Bigelow, Nicholas K. Lubinsky and Luis Fernando Velásquez-García, 13 July 2022, Additive Manufacturing.
DOI: 10.1016/j.addma.2022.103034

This work was funded, in part, by MIT, the MIT-Tecnológico de Monterrey Nanotechnology Program, the MIT Portugal Program, and the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology.

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