When the late Supreme Leader of Iran, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, issued an Islamic edict against Salman Rushdie on February 14, 1989, an Arabic word, fatwa, the cleric used to call on Muslims to execute the author reverberated across the world.
The fatwa was issued in retaliation for The Satanic Verses, a 1988 book by Rushdie that Khomeini deemed blasphemous to Islam.
With that chilling Valentine’s Day decree, the two-syllable word, fatwa, inserted itself into the popular lexicon of the West, and has appeared more tenaciously than perhaps any other Middle Eastern term.
It came immediately to the minds of millions of people when they learned that a man wielding a knife last month attacked Rushdie at the Chautauqua Institution, a retreat for artists in New York State.
A fatwa, however, “rarely calls for death,” writes Miriam Renaud, a faculty member in the Department of Religious Studies at DePaul University, in an August 17 article in The Conversation, an independent, nonprofit news organization.
Various Islamic religious authorities can issue fatwas. Most of them are in response to questions about a range of issues posed by individuals or a group of people within a Muslim community.
Fundamentally, the word fatwa means “explanation” or “clarification” about issues surrounding Islamic law, says Renaud. “The process of issuing a fatwa usually begins when a Muslim, confronted with a problem of life, belief or law, is unsure what to do.”
Generally, Muslim individuals solicit fatwas from a local cleric or a group of Islamic law scholars when they are unsure about how to conduct themselves or when they are concerned that they might be “deviating from God’s dictates,” writes Renaud. “They may believe that straying from the path of righteous conduct could jeopardize their entry into heaven. For them, the stakes are high.”
Because fatwas cover a wide range of topics—everything from personal hygiene and marital relations to inheritance law, lifestyle and national allegiance—they require a thorough grounding in Islamic law as well as a sound knowledge of past fatwas.
Muslims cannot simply consult the Quran for answers to religious questions, Renaud explains, because the holy book is either silent on certain issues or various passages in it are subject to different interpretations, making it difficult for believers to decipher the correct reading.
Despite their authoritativeness, fatwas are nonbinding—that is, Muslims are under no compulsion to obey them. “The force of a fatwa derives from the authority, trust and respect accorded to the clerics, scholars or institutions who issue them,” says Renaud. “With this authority comes the power to shape the religious and social norms of the fatwa-requesting community.”
Although fatwas are often solicited by ordinary Muslims, they can also be issued in response to certain situations. For example, a leading seminary in India, the Dar al-Ulum Deoband, issued a fatwa in 2010 against the Islamic State after deeming the terrorist group to be un-Islamic.
“Rare are the fatwas like the one against Rushdie that call on Muslims to kill a particular individual,” Renaud concludes. “But for now, the fatwa against Rushdie stands.”
From its beginnings, the Church of Scientology has recognized that freedom of religion is a fundamental human right. In a world where conflicts are often traceable to intolerance of others’ religious beliefs and practices, the Church has, for more than 50 years, made the preservation of religious liberty an overriding concern.
The Church publishes this blog to help create a better understanding of the freedom of religion and belief and provide news on religious freedom and issues affecting this freedom around the world.
UN Photo/Loey Felipe -
Secretary-General António Guterres addresses UN Security Council members on threats to international peace and security.
Briefing the Security Council on Tuesday, UN Secretary-General António Guterres again underlined the need to de-escalate the situation around the embattled Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant in Ukraine.
Europe’s largest nuclear plant has come under repeated shelling in recent weeks, sparking fears of a potential nuclear disaster.
Highlighting his continued grave concern over the situation, the UN chief again warned that any damage to Zaporizhzhia, or to any other nuclear facility in Ukraine, could result in a wide-reaching catastrophe.
“All steps must be taken to avoid such a scenario. Common sense and cooperation must guide the way forward. Any action that might endanger the physical integrity, safety or security of the nuclear plant is unacceptable,” he said.
I remain gravely concerned about the situation in and around the Zaporizhzhia plant, including reports of recent shelling.
Let's tell it like it is: Any damage – whether intentional or not – in Zaporizhzhia or any other nuclear facility in Ukraine, could spell catastrophe. pic.twitter.com/oi5a6sgOUS
The Secretary-General stressed that efforts to re-establish the plant as purely civilian infrastructure are vital.
“As a first step, Russian and Ukrainian forces must commit not to engage in any military activity towards the plant site or from the plant site. The Zaporizhzhia facility and its surroundings must not be a target or a platform for military operations,” he said.
The second step would entail securing an agreement on a demilitarized perimeter.
“Specifically, that would include a commitment by Russian forces to withdraw all military personnel and equipment from that perimeter and a commitment by Ukrainian forces not to move into it. Operators at the plant must be able to carry out their responsibilities, and communications must be maintained”.
The Secretary-General called for commitment to support inspectors from the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) stationed at the plant.
Following months of negotiations, a 14-member team from the nuclear watchdog arrived there last week. Two will remain at the site, which has been under Russian control since the early days of the conflict.
“I trust that the IAEA experts now deployed to Zaporizhzhia will be able to carry out their work without hindrance and contribute to ensuring lasting nuclear safety and security at the plant. All of us have a stake in the success of their critical mission,” he said.
‘Historic’ IAEA mission
IAEA chief Rafael Mariano Grossi, who led the mission, had described it as “historic”. The fact that staff are now there is “unprecedented”, he added.
Citing nuclear disasters in Chernobyl and Fukushima, as well as the conflict in Iraq, he recalled that while agency inspectors had experienced “difficult circumstances,” it had always been in the aftermath.
“We in this case have the historical, ethical imperative to prevent something from happening. And by having established this presence, and by agreeing to a special safety and security protection zone…we have the opportunity to prevent this from happening.”
Unsplash/Yehor Milohrodskyi
The Dnieper hydroelectric power station in Zaporizhzhia, Ukraine.
‘Playing with fire’
The mission report, published on Tuesday, provides concrete recommendations to address the seven pillars of nuclear safety that Mr. Grossi had outlined at the beginning of the war.
Although the first pillar calls for not violating the physical integrity of nuclear facilities, “this happened, and continues to happen,” he said.
“The hits that this facility has received and that I could personally see and assess together with my experts is simply unacceptable. We are playing with fire and something very, very catastrophic could take place,” he warned.
The report proposes setting up a nuclear safety and security protection zone that would be limited to the perimeter and the plant itself.
Other recommendations call for removing all military vehicles and equipment from nuclear buildings at the site and ensuring the return to clear and routine responsibilities for staff, in addition to re-establishing an “appropriate” work environment.
A rise in the frequency, intensity and duration of heatwaves will not only increase wildfires this century but also worsen air quality – harming human health and ecosystems, according to a new report from the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) launched on Wednesday, the International Day of Clean Air for Blue Skies.
“As the globe warms, wildfires and associated air pollution are expected to increase, even under a low emissions scenario,” saidWMO Secretary-General Petteri Taalas.
“In addition to human health impacts, this will also affect ecosystems as air pollutants settle from the atmosphere to Earth’s surface”.
The annual WMO Air Quality and Climate Bulletin warned that the interaction between pollution and climate change would impose a “climate penalty” for hundreds of millions of people.
In addition to reporting on the state of air quality and its close interlinkages with climate change, the Bulletin explores a range of possible air quality outcomes under high and low greenhouse gas emission scenarios.
The impact of last year’s wildfire smoke has served to augment this year’s heatwaves.
Mr. Taalas pointed to 2022 heatwaves in Europe and China, describing stable high atmospheric conditions, sunlight and low wind speeds as being “conducive to high pollution levels”.
“This is a foretaste of the future because we expect a further increase in the frequency, intensity and duration of heatwaves, which could lead to even worse air quality, a phenomenon known as the ‘climate penalty’”.
The “climate penalty” refers specifically to the increase in climate change as it impacts the air people breathe.
Air pollutants
The region with the strongest projected climate penalty – mainly Asia – is home to roughly one-quarter of the world’s population.
Climate change could exacerbate ozone pollution, which would lead to detrimental health impacts for hundreds of millions of people.
Because air quality and climate are interconnected, changes in one inevitably causes changes in the other.
The Bulletin explains that the combustion of fossil also emits nitrogen oxide, which can react with sunlight to form ozone and nitrate aerosols.
In turn, these air pollutants can negatively affect ecosystem health, including clean water, biodiversity, and carbon storage.
Looking ahead
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Sixth Assessment Report provides scenarios on the evolution of air quality as temperatures increase throughout this century.
If greenhouse gas emissions remain high, such that global temperatures rise by 3° C from preindustrial levels by the second half of the 21st century, surface ozone levels are expected to increase across heavily polluted areas, particularly in Asia.
This includes a 20 per cent jump across Pakistan, northern India and Bangladesh, and 10 per cent across eastern China.
Fossil fuel emissions will cause ozone increases that will most likely trigger heatwaves, which in turn will amplify air pollution.
Therefore, the heatwaves that are becoming increasingly common due to climate change, are likely to continue degrading air quality.
Air pollution in Dhaka, Bangladesh, is leading to a series of health problems for the city’s inhabitants.
Low-carbon scenario
To avoid this, the IPCC suggests a low-carbon emissions scenario, which would cause a small, short-term warming prior to temperature decreases.
A future world that follows this scenario would also benefit from reduced nitrogen and sulfur compounds from the atmosphere to the Earth’s surface, where they can damage ecosystems.
WMO stations around the world would monitor the response of air quality and ecosystem health to proposed future emissions reductions.
This could quantify the efficacy of the policies designed to limit climate change and improve air quality.
CEC Member Churches have been greatly shaken by the impact of the Russian aggression on Ukraine. Ecumenical solidarity has emerged in force among European churches, with our members and ecumenical partners responding with an outpouring of prayers for peace. A flood of appeals and statements are urging for a diplomatic solution through dialogue, strongly advocating for reconciliation, and encouraging political decision-makers and church leaders to play their crucial roles. European churches have also supported and continue to implement humanitarian projects, offering aid and an open door to those fleeing the conflict.
Czechia holds the Presidency of the Council until the end of 2022. A first series of hearings took place from 11 to 13 July. A second set of hearings to presents outlines priorities to EP committees will happen during the first week of September.
The impact of Russian aggression against Ukraine on food security is a key priority, according to Agriculture Minister Zdeněk Nekula on 11 July. The Presidency will seek an early start for the reform of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) to provide member states with flexibility and temporary exceptions to handle the crisis. The Presidency will also prioritise negotiations on the sustainable use of plant protection products.
A number of MEPs called for the way in which solidarity corridors for agricultural exports from Ukraine work to be improved and for a balance between EU food production and the proposed reduction in the use of pesticides. Some MEPs agreed that some derogations from CAP rules will be needed, while others warned against weakening the CAP and called for organic farming to be supported instead.
Development
On 12 July, Jiří Kozák, Deputy Minister for Foreign Affairs, highlighted a three-fold challenge caused by Russia’s war against Ukraine: the distribution of grain from Ukraine; securing sufficient humanitarian relief; and breaking the Russian narrative that the food security crisis is the EU’s fault. Mr Kozák also said that, for the Post-Cotonou Agreement, the Presidency is determined to conclude the remaining steps as fast as possible.
MEPs agreed on the importance of dealing with the immediate and longer-term impacts of the war on global food security. They also raised the question of refugees in Ukraine and its neighbours. Others questioned the Presidency on their priorities in the Sahel, on the migration issue on the EU’s southern border, and the integration of humanitarian relief and long-term development policy.
Transport and Tourism
On 12 July, Transport MinisterMartin Kupka, and Deputy Prime Minister for Digitisation and Minister of Regional DevelopmentIvan Bartoš, stressed that the Presidency will focus on measures to decarbonise transport, promote railways, make sure solidarity lanes for Ukraine are working and increase the resilience of the tourism sector. Minister Kupka promised MEPs that the work on new rules on the Single European Sky, alternative fuel infrastructure, sustainable fuels for aviation and maritime sectors, intelligent transport systems and TEN-T revision would advance.
Transport Committee MEPs urged the Presidency to put more efforts into addressing mobility poverty and road safety, make sure EU countries would unite in response to any possible new COVID-19 pandemic and asked for the option of providing EU financial support for solidarity lanes in Ukraine to be explored.
Fisheries
On 12 July, Zdeněk Nekula, Minister of Agriculture, said that the Presidency’s top priority will be to ensure food security in the EU and improve the competitiveness of the sector compared to third countries. Despite being a landlocked country, the Czech Presidency will also focus on fishing quotas, reaching agreements on EU fishing possibilities with third countries, as well as fisheries-relevant initiatives related to the Green Deal.
MEPs stressed the need to help fishers due to the impact of the war in Ukraine. They welcomed the intention to make fisheries more competitive but stressed the need to strike a balance between the socio-economic and environmental aspects of the initiative. Finally, some reaffirmed the idea of reforming the Common Fisheries Policy, even if the Commission is reluctant to do so.
Internal Market and Consumer Protection
Industry and Trade Minister Jozef Síkela told MEPs that the Presidency will pay special attention to better enforcement of Single Market tools and services, deeper market integration and high consumer protection, including raising consumer awareness on sustainable consumption and online risks. The Presidency will work to move forward on negotiations with MEPs on machinery products and consumer credits and to reach a common position in the Council on the General Product Safety Regulation, the Artificial Intelligence Act, and Transparency and Targeting of Political Advertising.
MEPs quizzed the Presidency on empowering consumers in light of the twin transition, the implementation of rules on dual quality of products, the update of travel package rules in light of the pandemic and the ongoing digital priorities (including the new Chips Act and European Digital Identity).
Women’s Rights and Gender Equality
Marian Jurečka, Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Labour and Social Affairs, said the Czech Presidency will strive to achieve progress on the pay transparency directive. On an EU strategy for care, they will focus on long-term care and providing refugees from Ukraine with high-quality care. Member states’ diverse positions on preventing violence against women need to be respected, he said, although the definition of online sexual violence will be discussed in November. There will be Council conclusions on gender equality, and the Presidency will look into economic parity for men and women with a focus on youth.
Several MEPs asked if Czechia is planning to ratify the Istanbul Convention. Many welcomed the objective to reach a deal on pay transparency, stressed that LGBTI rights and sexual and reproductive health and rights must be protected, and highlighted Parliament’s call to add the right to abortion to the EU Charter of fundamental rights.
Employment and Social Affairs
On 11 July, Marian Jurečka, Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Labour and Social Affairs, identified as key issues: managing the influx and integration of refugees, food and energy affordability for the most vulnerable and the fight against child poverty. Further priorities include reaching a common position in the Council on improving conditions in platform work, and progressing on the pay transparency directive.
MEPs asked for the Social Climate Fund to be made operational to protect the most vulnerable during the green transition. Some MEPs urged for the SURE instrument for the preservation of employment to become permanent and for a more ambitious use of the Child Guarantee. Finally, MEPs asked for an extraordinary Social Summit to address the impact the energy and inflation crisis and the recession are having on employment.
Environment, Public Health and Food Safety
On 11 July, Environment Minister Anna Hubáčková told MEPs the priorities are: reaching agreements on the Fit for 55 files; nature restoration law; protecting vulnerable households during the green transition; and global cooperation on climate and environment. MEPs questioned the minister on preparations for the UN conferences on climate change (COP27) and biodiversity (COP15), as well as the Russian war’s impact on the environment.
On 12 July, Health Minister Vlastimil Válek said the Presidency will focus on the fight against cancer; disinformation on vaccination and vaccines for new variants; progress on Council’s position regarding the European Health Data Space (EHDS), and healthcare services for Ukrainian refugees. MEPs quizzed the minister on fair prices and access to vaccines, the impact of the war, rare diseases and the impact of climate change on population health.
Later that day Agriculture Minister Zdeněk Nekula highlighted food security, sustainable agriculture, animal health, and achieving progress on “Farm to Fork” and agreeing on the “Deforestation” regulation. MEPs questioned the minister on the sustainable use of pesticides, the Russian war’s impact on food security, genomic technologies, the financing of the green transition of the agricultural sector, and meat production.
Regional Development
On 12 July, Deputy Prime Minister for Digitisation and Minister of Regional DevelopmentIvan Bartoš said the Presidency will focus on the future cohesion policy, analysing which instruments are helping to converge EU regions best and ensuring green and digital transitions, while at the same time providing for the necessary flexibility to face new developments.
MEPs stressed cohesion funds should be used to develop a capacity that ensures safe transit of food and supplies, in current time of war. They also warned that cohesion policy principles should not harm the environment. MEPs also urged the Presidency to support the idea of setting-up a new generation Just Transition fund and reviving the EU Cross Border Mechanism.
Economic and Monetary Affairs
Russia’s war in Ukraine and rising inflation will be the backdrop for most of the Presidency’s priorities, Finance Minister Zbyněk Stanjura told MEPs on 13 July. The Presidency would be prioritising reaching agreements on EU rules for a global minimum tax on large multinationals, green bonds, anti-money laundering rules and energy taxation. It would broker discussions on integrating Repower EU into the Recovery and Resilience Facility to remove Russian influence from the EU economy, and on the update of the EU’s fiscal rules.
MEPs focussed their questions on what the Presidency was concretely planning to do to save the rules on a global minimum tax, and how it would orient talks on a revision of the fiscal rules, and to what extent it is possible to address inflation without impinging on the independence of central banks. The looming economic difficulties and the debate around unanimity voting in the area of taxation were also raised by a number of MEPs.
Culture, Education and Youth
On 13 July, Culture Minister Martin Baxa said the Presidency will focus on finalising the EU’s 2023–2026 Work Plan for Culture. He also promised to work to open negotiations on boosting funds for the Creative Europe programme, as the current funding does not meet the sector’s needs. Minister of Education, Youth and Sports Vladimír Balaš focussed in his presentation on digital education, intergenerational dialogue and active support for the European Year of Youth, with a conference on the latter planned for 6 December 2022.
MEPs asked about plans for the Media Freedom Act, due to be announced in September, ways to include Ukrainian students in the EU student mobility programme, and integrating Ukrainian refugee children and young people into the EU education system. They also raised issues around sporting activities, the implementation of the Copyright directive, and completing the European Education area.
International Trade
“Free trade agreements are the core tasks of the Czech Presidency,” said Trade Minister Jozef Síkala on 13 July, a statement that Trade Committee members welcomed. They urged the conclusion and ratification of free trade agreements with, among others, New Zealand, Mexico, Chile, Australia, India and the Mercosur countries, insisting that all trade deals must respect the EU’s values and sustainability goals.
Trade Committee members asked the presidency to work towards reaching a Council position on the review of the Generalised Scheme of Preferences and the anti-coercion instrument and to finally conclude the Post-Cotonou agreement. Several MEPs urged the Council to intensify cooperation with Africa and to consider gender equality when working on trade.
Foreign Affairs
Foreign Affairs Minister Jan Lipavský on 13 July outlined five priorities: Ukraine, energy, defence, economy and democracy. Stressing the need to continue standing by Ukraine, he warned against the dangers of “Ukraine fatigue”, and called for weapons to be supplied to Kyiv more quickly and for greater efforts to facilitate the country’s post-war reconstruction. He also stressed the need for a strong transatlantic partnership and for discussing how the EU should reassess its relations with Russia in the long term.
MEPs quizzed Mr Lipavský on a range of subjects, including on the EU’s long-term vision for relations with Russia, how to move ahead with the EU enlargement process, in particular on Bulgaria’s blockade of North Macedonia, the necessity to grant EU visa liberalisation to Kosovo and the need to counter Russian false narratives in countries south of the EU, including Africa.
Industry, Research and Energy
Ivan Bartoš, Deputy Prime Minister for Digitisation and Minister of Regional Development, said that the Presidency will work on the digital agenda, communication resilience, sustainable digital ecosystems, cybersecurity in the EU, security of ICT supply chains, and digitalisation of public services. The Presidency will aim to secure a Council position on the AI Act, a general approach on the eID regulation, and to continue work on the Data Act. It will also work to reach an agreement in Council on the proposal to reinforce cybersecurity in the EU before the end of November, he said.
On industry and energy, Jozef Síkela, Minister of Industry and Trade, said that the Presidency will work to reduce the EU’s dependence on Russian fossil fuels as set out in the RepowerEU plan, continue work towards climate neutrality, while securing affordable energy for citizens. The Presidency will work on fast-tracking permitting procedures in renewables, improving energy efficiency and energy savings, as well as on the transition to low-carbon and renewable energy sources. It will also focus on diversifying supplies and assist the Commission with the EU’s energy platform for joint purchasing, to ensure that all member states have enough energy supplies for the winter.
On research and innovation, Vladimír Balaš, Minister of Education, Youth and Sports, said that the Presidency will work to advance the development of the European Research area and the EU research ecosystem. It will focus on synergies in research and innovation funding, on the enhancement of the European research infrastructure ecosystem, and the development of a new European innovation agenda. It will also aim to finalise the legislation on the Horizon Europe joint undertakings with regards to semiconductors, and the conclusion of association agreements with third countries on Horizon Europe.
On space policy, Martin Kupka, Minister of Transport , said that the Presidency will remain committed to ensuring that the EUSPA agency for the Space Programme, based in Prague, has the best conditions and provides the best standards. The main priority will be the programme for secure connectivity, and the Presidency is looking to start talks with MEPs as soon as possible. The Presidency will also focus on innovation and the use of data and services from EU space systems, and to extend existing capacities to protect the EU’s satellite systems.
Civil Liberties, Justice and Home Affairs
The Presidency strongly supports EU responses to Russian aggression, including the fight against impunity and collecting evidence on war crimes, Justice Minister Pavel Blažek told MEPs on 5 September. He said that Eurojust and its new mandate can play a key role, while stressing that ongoing work on cracking down on sanctions violations will continue.
European Affairs Minister Mikuláš Bek said that the work on the rule of law will play a major role and announced that the next discussion on the issue will focus on Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovenia and Sweden. The Presidency will also work on the ongoing procedures on Poland and Hungary, in dialogue with the national governments.
MEPs encouraged the Presidency to produce country-specific recommendations on the state of rule of law. MEPs also called for more engagement on e-Privacy and e-Evidence, asked for a stronger stance on revelations about spyware being used and raised the issue of media monopolisation in certain countries.
On the same day, First Deputy Prime Minister and Interior Minister Vit Rakušan said the Presidency is ready to start negotiations on the Screening and Eurodac regulations and work on structural solutions for solidarity and legal migration. Online child sexual abuse, the mandate of the EU drug addiction monitoring centre, the political governance of the Schengen area and Croatia, Romania and Bulgaria’s inclusion in it, are also priorities.
MEPs asked for more details on the Council’s timetable on migration files, on data protection concerns in relation to fighting online child abuse as well as on pushbacks and human rights violations at the EU’s external borders.
Legal Affairs
On 5 September, Justice Minister Pavel Blažek identified progress on the directive on the protection of the environment through criminal law and the digitalisation of justice systems as key issues. Further priorities include corporate sustainability due diligence, the directive to tackle abusive lawsuits targeting critical voices, so-called SLAPPs, and legislation on Artificial Intelligence (AI).
MEPs stressed the importance of a liability regime for AI. Some MEPs urged for progress on the revision of EU geographical indications. Finally, MEPs asked for an ambitious approach on the SLAPPs directive, underlining that it is of vital importance for freedom of expression, fearing Council might weaken the initiative.
Constitutional Affairs
Following the presentation by European Affairs Minister Mikuláš Bek on 5 September, MEPs inquired on the follow-up to the Conference on the Future of Europe, including the revision of EU Treaties and the reform of electoral rules, already initiated by Parliament. They also called on the Presidency to focus on the fight against foreign interference and disinformation, and the protection of the EU’s legal order from breaches of the rule of law.
Minister Bek replied he intends to have a political discussion on a Convention to revise the Treaties in October, aiming to have a vote in November and pass on the matter to the European Council. Electoral law reform will be debated in October, but he warned MEPs the process will be politically complicated. The Presidency will seek a common approach on European political parties and foundations by the end of the year. On the rule of law, he promised that the topic will feature prominently in all General Affairs Council agendas.
The proposed article was originally printed in the Church Gazette (issues 15, 17 and 19) – an edition of our diocese, as a review of the book of Fr. M. Polsky[1] The canonical position of the supreme church authority in the USSR and abroad (from “Typography of Rev. Iov Pochaevsky in St. Troitskom monastry”, 1948, 196 p.), and it is reprinted here without any significant changes. In it I touch, as far as it is possible for me, only one of all concerned in the book of Fr. M. Polish questions, namely about the church organization abroad.
Based on a detailed analysis of facts and documents, in his book prot. Polsky comes to the following definite conclusion: “Today, the only canonical authority in the Russian Orthodox Church as a whole, both for its overseas part and – after 1927 – for Russia itself, is the Abroad Synod of Bishops” (p. 193). It is hardly possible to say more clearly. Therefore, if only out of respect for the author’s personality and work, we must treat his evidence carefully and try to put and understand the question on its merits. There is no room for controversy here. Or Fr. M. Polski is right – and then, convinced by him, all those who until that moment have thought otherwise are obliged to accept his conclusions and harmonize their church life according to them – or he is not right, but in such a case it is not enough to simply say this, but to reveal where the justice lies. There can be no relativism in the church. And the fact that so many people these days “don’t pay attention” to the question of church organization and consider it unimportant, some “business of the bishops”, is only a sign of a deep illness and loss of church consciousness. There cannot be multiple equally valid ways of understanding the Church, its nature, task and organization.
The book of Fr. M. Polski demands from us a clear and definite answer to the question: what is our specific disagreement with the Overseas Synod and where do we see the norm of the canonical structure of our church life? I am convinced that the time has come when these questions must be posed and considered in substance, that is, in the light of the Tradition of the Church, instead of in the fruitless form of “jurisdictional polemics”. Of course, just one article is not enough for this purpose. The concerted effort of the entire church consciousness is necessary. The task of this article is only to ask the question and try to evaluate the book of Fr. M. Polski in some comprehensive relationship. It goes without saying that the article has no official character and is only a private attempt – according to one’s own strength – to ecclesiastically approach some of the painful difficulties of our church life.
All disputes over ecclesiastical organization usually boil down to the question of canonicity and non-canonicality, in which the ways of defining both are infinitely varied. Thus, at the basis of his judgments, Fr. M. Polski takes Apostolic Rule 34: “The bishops of each nation must know which of them is first and recognize him as the head.” And let them not do without his opinion anything that exceeds their power: let each do only that which pertains to his diocese and to the lands belonging to it. But the first should not do anything without the opinion of all. Because in this way there will be consensus and God will be glorified through the Lord in the Holy Spirit – Father and Son and Holy Spirit”.[2] However, we can ask: why, as the main criterion, Fr. M. Polsky proclaims just this and not some other rule? Take, for example, Rule 15 of the First Ecumenical Council. It prohibits bishops and clerics from moving from one diocese to another. At the same time, both in Russia and abroad, the relocated bishops were and continue to be not an exception to the rule, but a common practice, and the Abroad Synod itself was composed in its majority of bishops who abandoned their chairs. Therefore, if we take this rule as the main criterion, then under the concept of “non-canonicality” we can include the entire episcopate of the synodal period of the history of the Russian Church, not to mention emigration. We cite this example not to simplify the controversy, but only to show the arbitrary nature of the one used by Fr. M. Polish method, the application of which would make all modern disputes about canonicity meaningless. Because on the basis of individual canonical texts, arbitrarily selected and interpreted ad hoc, absolutely everything that pleases us can be proved, and in the émigré church-polemical literature, curious examples can be found of how with the help of the same canons one can prove and justify two diametrically opposed points of view. Thus, it becomes clear that before we use the canons, we must establish the norm of their use itself, i.e. try to clarify what a canon is and what its action is in the life of the Church.
It is known that the Church compiled the canons at different times and on different occasions, in the general case with the aim of correcting the distortions of church life or in connection with a change that occurred in the conditions of church life. Thus, in their origin, the canons were determined by the historical setting in view of which they were composed. From this, some “liberal” Orthodox people make the hasty and erroneous conclusion that, as a rule, the canons are “inapplicable” because the conditions of life for which they were created have changed, and therefore all disputes about canonicity are a fruitless and harmful casuistry. Opposing the “liberals” are those who can be called zealots of canonical formalism. Usually ill-informed in theology and in the history of the Church, they see in the canons only the letter and consider as heresy any attempt to see meaning behind that letter. Indeed, at first glance, the implementation of the canons faces great difficulties. So what relation to our lives could have some of the canons, for example, of the Council of Carthage, determining how to divide the dioceses with bishops who switched to the heresy of the Donatists (Council of Carthage, Rule 132)? And at the same time, the Church has repeatedly and solemnly confirmed the “indestructibility” and “unwaveringness” of the canons (Seventh Ecumenical Council, Rule 1; Council of Trulli), and the promise of fidelity to the canons is part of our bishop’s oath. In reality, however, this contradiction is apparent and based on a theological misunderstanding. The deepest error of both “liberals” and “zealots” is that they see in the canon a statute of a juridical nature – a kind of administrative rule that is automatically applicable if only a suitable text can be found. In this approach, some who find such a text try to use it to justify their position (which, in fact, is usually determined for completely different reasons), and others simply reject any reference to the canons as obviously “outdated” legislation.
The thing is, however, that the canon is not a legal document, that it is not a simple administrative rule that can be applied purely formally. The canon contains an indication of how, under the given conditions, the eternal and unchanging essence of the Church can be embodied and manifested, and precisely this eternal truth expressed in the canon – although on a completely different occasion, radically different from our historical situation – represents the eternal and unshakable content of the canon and it is she who makes the canons an invariable part of the Tradition of the Church. “The forms of historical existence of the Church – writes an Orthodox canonist – are extremely diverse. To anyone with even a little knowledge of Church history, this is so self-evident that it requires no proof. One historical form is replaced in this process by another. And yet, for all the diversity of the historical forms of church life, we find in them a constant core. This core is the dogmatic teaching of the Church, or in other words, the Church itself. Church life cannot take arbitrary forms, but only those that correspond to the essence of the Church and are able to express this essence under the specific historical conditions”.[3] Therefore, it is the canon that is the norm for how the Church embodies its immutable essence in changing historical conditions. And therefore to use the canons means, first of all, to be able to find in the text of the canon that eternal core, that side of the dogmatic teaching of the Church, which are precisely contained in it, then to update this eternally – again and again – in life. However, for such use of the canons, as for everything else in the Church, the dead knowledge of the Book of Rules is not enough,[4] but a spiritual effort is required, since the canons cannot be separated from the entire Tradition of the Church, as this people using them as absolute legal rules often do. Fidelity to the canons is fidelity to the entire Tradition of the Church, and this fidelity, in the words of Prof. Prot. Georgi Florovski, “does not mean fidelity to the external authority of the past, but is a living connection with the fullness of the Church’s experience. The reference to the Tradition is not only a historical argument, and the Tradition is not reduced to ecclesiastical archaeology”.[5]
And so, the yardstick for the ecclesiastical structure turns out to be not the bare canonical text, but the testimony contained in it about the Tradition of the Church. This is the only understanding of the canons that gives us an objective and ecclesiastical criterion for determining the applicability or non-applicability of one or another canon to a given situation, and thus also tells us the way of its use. Therefore, in our effort to determine the canonical norm of our ecclesiastical organization in these new conditions in which God has condemned us to live, we are obliged first of all to recall what the Church has always and everywhere embodied but with its external arrangement and what is that main thing to which the canons point.
2. The essence of the Church
The essence of the Church can be expressed with a single word – unity. The Greek term itself ἐκκλησία (church) means, according to the definition of St. Cyril of Jerusalem, “a gathering of all together in unity.” “And the fact that, from the very beginning, this term closely related to Old Testament terminology was taken to denote the Christian Church, speaks clearly of the consciousness of unity that was present in the primal church” – so he writes in his Essays on the History of Dogma for the Church V. Troitsky (subsequently Solovetsky confessor archbishop Hilarion).[6] However, what is the essence of this unity, what is expressed or should it be expressed?
With sadness we have to admit that if we continue to profess the unity of the Church, as well as other dogmas with our mouths, then in our consciousness this unity has become an almost hijacked concept, or almost subconsciously we have replaced its original meaning with our own concepts. While at the same time the unity of the Church is not just a “negative” sign, which means that the Church is united when there are no obvious disagreements in it, but represents the very content of church life. Unity in Christ of people with God and unity – in Christ – of the people themselves among themselves, according to the words of the Lord: “I am in them, and You in Me, so that they may be in complete unity” (John 17:23). “The church – writes Fr. G. Florovsky – is a unity not only in the sense that it is one and only, but above all because its very essence consists in the rejoining into one of the divided and fragmented human race”.[7] In the fallen and sinful world, everything divides people, and therefore the unity of the Church is supernatural. It requires a re-gathering and renewal of human nature itself – things that were accomplished by Christ in His Incarnation, in His death on the cross and Resurrection – and which are graciously given to us in the Church through the sacrament of Baptism. In the fallen world, Christ has begun a new being. “This very new being of humanity St. Ap. Paul calls the Church and characterizes it as the Body of Christ”,[8] that is, such an “organic unity of all believers that even the life of the regenerated person becomes unthinkable outside of this organic unity”.[9]
However, just as in the sacrament of Baptism we receive all the fullness of grace, but we ourselves must grow in it by being filled with it, so in the Church – all the fullness of unity is given in Christ, but each of us is required to fulfill or realize this unity, manifestation of this unity in life. In this way, the life of the Church represents a “creation of the body of Christ, until we all reach the unity of faith and the knowledge of the Son of God, to the state of a perfect man, to the full age of Christ’s perfection” (Eph. 4:12-13). “Only then will the head, that is, Christ, be fulfilled, when we are all united and fastened in the most permanent way”.[10] The way to realize this unity in Christ with a view to the creation of His Body is love. “Paul demands from us such a love – says St. John Chrysostom – that would bind us together, making us inseparable from one another, and such a perfect union as if we were members of the same body”.[11] And finally, in the Liturgy – the highest and final embodiment of the Church’s unity in Christ – only after we have “loved one another” can we pray: “All of us – partakers of the one Bread and the one Cup – unite one to another in the one Spirit of Holy Communion…” (From the Liturgy of St. Basil the Great).
Thus unity turns out to be a real content of church life. Given to the Church from the very beginning, it is also the goal of each of us and of all together – that fullness to which we are obliged to strive at every moment of our ecclesial existence.
3. The Catholicity of the Church: local and universal
Here is this unity, which is the dogmatic essence of the Church, represents in reality the norm of its organization, i.e. it is precisely what is embodied in both the external and internal organization of the Church throughout its earthly history – it is also pointed to it is invariably protected by church canons. “This unity, i.e. the church itself, does not seem like something desired and only expected. The church is not only a conceivable magnitude, it is a real historically tangible phenomenon… In the natural world, Christ has laid the beginning of a special, supernatural society, which will continue to exist alongside natural phenomena”.[12] And because of this, the historical forms of the church organization, although they change depending on the external historical conditions, change only because in these new conditions the same eternal essence of the Church and, above all, its unity is invariably embodied. That is why, under the diversity and difference of all these forms, we always find a basic core, some permanent principle, the betrayal of which or the violation of which would mean to change the very nature of the church. We have in mind the principle of the locality of the ecclesiastical structure.
The locality of the Church means that in one place, that is, in one territory, only one Church can exist, or in other words, one church organization, expressed in the unity of the priesthood. The bishop is the head of the Church – in the words of St. Cyprian of Carthage, who said: “The Church is in the bishop and the bishop is in the Church.” That is why in a Church there can be only one head – a bishop – and this bishop, in turn, heads the whole Church in the given place. “The Church of God in Corinth” (1 Cor. 1:2) – here the history of the Church begins with such church units scattered all over the world. And if subsequently this unit and its territory undergo development – from a small municipality in a given city to a diocese, from a diocese to a district and from a district to a huge patriarchate, the principle itself remains unchanged, and at its foundation always remains the same indestructible cell: the one bishop heading the one Church in the particular place. If we delve into the essence of the canons that refer to the authority of the bishop and to the distinction of this authority between the individual bishops, it will not be subject to any doubt that they protect precisely this primordial norm, demanding its embodiment regardless of the specific conditions.
Why is this so? This is so precisely because of this unity of the Church in each specific place, which is also the first concrete embodiment of that unity in which the very essence of the Church and its life consists – the unity of the people whom Christ has regenerated for new life and for who “is one Lord, one faith, one baptism” (Eph. 4:5). And therefore there can be no other principle of organization of the Church than the local and the territorial, because any other principle would mean that some other natural feature – national, racial or ideological – has replaced the supernatural, supernatural, grace unity in Christ. The Church opposes the natural divisions in the world to the supernatural unity in God and embodies this unity in its structure.
The same meaning is also contained in the other name of the Church – in naming it New Israel. Old Testament Israel was the people of God and its religion was essentially national, so accepting it meant becoming a Jew “in the flesh”, joining the Jewish people. As for the Church, its designation as the “new Israel” meant that the Christians constituted a new and united people of God, of which the Old Testament Israel was a type, and in this new unity “circumcision or uncircumcision” no longer means anything – there is no Jew there, we are Greek, but all are already one in Christ.
This very principle of locality lies at the basis of the catholicity (i.e. collegiality) of the Church.[13] The Greek word catholicity means first of all wholeness and applied to the Church, it indicates not only its universality, i.e. that the Universal Church is simply a sum of all its parts, but also that in the Church everything is Catholic, i.e. that in each of its parts the whole fullness of the experience of the Church, its whole essence, is fully embodied. “The Catholic Church residing in Smyrna” – this is how the Smyrna Christians defined themselves in the middle of the second century (Martyrdom of Polycarp 16, 2). Every Christian is also called to this catholicity, i.e. to conformity with the whole. “The order for Catholicism – says Fr. G. Florovsky – is given to everyone… The Church is Catholic in each of its members, since the Catholic whole cannot be built in any other way than through the Catholicity of all members”.[14] And so every church, every ecclesiastical community, in any place, is always a living embodiment of the whole essence of the Church: not just a part, but a member living the life of the whole organism, or rather, the Catholic Church itself , residing at this location.
(to be continued)
* “Church and church structure. About books prot. Polish Canonical position of the highest church authorities in the USSR and abroad” – In: Shmeman, A. Collection of articles (1947-1983), M.: “Русский пут” 2009, pp. 314-336; the text was originally published in: Church Gazette of the Western-European Orthodox Russian Exarchate, Paris, 1949.
Notes:
[1] Protopresbyter Mikhail Polsky (1891-1960) was a graduate of the Stavropol Theological Seminary, a priest from 1920, and in 1921 he entered the Moscow Theological Academy, which was closed soon after. In 1923 he was arrested and exiled to the Solovetsky Islands, but in 1930 he managed to escape and cross the Russian-Persian border. At first he ended up in Palestine, then (from 1938 to 1948) he was the chairman of the London parish of the Russian Orthodox Church Abroad (OROC), and in 1948 he moved to the USA, where he served in the church of the ROCOR “Joy of All Who Sorrow” in the city of San Francisco. He is the author of a number of works on the situation of the church in Soviet Russia.
[2] Cited by: The rules of the Holy Orthodox Church with their interpretations, 1, S. 1912, p. 98.
[3] Afanasyev, N. “Unchanging and temporary in church canons” – In: Living tradition. Collection, Paris 1937.
[4] Literally the Book of Rules – Slavic bilingual canonical collection (with Church Slavonic and Greek text), published for the first time in the first half of the 19th century and including the creeds of the ecumenical councils, the so-called Apostolic Rules, the rules of the ecumenical and of the local councils and the rules of the holy fathers (note trans.).
[5] Florovsky, G. “Sobornost” – In: The Church of God, London 1934, p. 63.
[6] Troitskii, V. Essays on the history of dogma about the Church, Sergiev Posad 1912, p. 15. See also: Aquilonov, E. Church (scientific definitions of the Church and apostolic teaching from it as about the Body of Christ), St. Petersburg. 1894; Mansvetov, N. New Testament teaching from Tserkva, M. 1879.
[7] Florovsky, G. Cit. op. p. 55. See also: Antonius, Mitr. Collection Sochinenii, 2, pp. 17-18: “The being of the Church cannot be compared with anything else on earth, since there is no unity there, only division… The Church is a completely new, extraordinary and unique being on earth , a “unique” that cannot be defined by any concepts taken from the life of the world… The Church is a similitude of the life of the Holy Trinity – a similitude in which the many become one.”
[8] Troitsky, V. Cit. ibid., p. 24.
[9] Ibid., p. 7.
[10] St. John Chrysostom, “Interpretation of the Epistle to the Ephesians”, Sermon 2 – In: The Creation of St. Joanna Chrysostom in Russian translation, 2, pp. 26-27.
[11] Ibid., p. 96.
[12] Troitskyi, V. Cit. ibid., p. 24.
[13] The exact name of the Orthodox Church is the Eastern Orthodox Catholic Church (for this see in: Prostrannyi khristianskii catechesis by Mitr. Philaret).
The Germans’ love for their dogs is proverbial. Now an exact price can be put on this love, reports DPA.
In 2021, the total amount of tax paid by dog owners in Germany rose by 5.4 percent to a record 401 million euros, according to data from the federal statistics office Destatis.
This is likely due to the pandemic-related increased purchases of pets, the agency said.
The tendency to increase the “love” for dogs was clearly manifested already in 2020. Then some wanted to have company while working from home, and others – to have a reason to go outside, at a time when this was not recommended.
The tax authorities, however, report a steady increase in dog tax revenue over the past decade. Compared to 2011, the increase in 2021 is nearly 46 percent.
Russia found itself in a Chinese trap. Before the war in Ukraine, it invested 17% of its gold reserves in yuan to protect itself from possible sanctions. Now, however, it turned out to be impossible to get them, because for their sale you need a special permission from China, which is difficult to obtain, writes Bloomberg(link is external). According to the Central Bank’s report, 105 billion dollars were invested in Chinese yuan.
This is clear from a presentation of the Central Bank of Russia, prepared for a meeting with members of the government on the further fate of reserves and plans to replenish them with the currency of “friendly countries”, held on August 30.
According to the document, Russian authorities are discussing the possibility of buying yuan and other “soft” currencies for $70 billion. “In the new situation, the accumulation of liquid reserves in foreign currency for future crises is extremely difficult and slow. The frozen 300 billion dollars not only does not help Russia, but is also a weakness, a symbol of missed opportunities,” says the presentation in a rare acknowledgment of the true impact of sanctions.
The Central Bank recognizes that because of the sanctions and the ban on operations with dollars and euros, this is not an easy task. The choice must fall on the few “friendly countries”. But the Turkish lira is collapsing – in 10 years it has lost 90% of its value. The UAE dirham is a “political risk” as it has increased visits by US officials to Dubai, who are insisting that the city does not become a hub for circumventing sanctions. There remains the yuan, but there is also a problem – it is easy to put money in, but it is almost impossible to withdraw it. “It is extremely difficult to obtain permission for the sale of Chinese yuan from the Chinese authorities in times of crisis,” the Central Bank wrote.
Officials first broached the idea of buying “friendly” currencies to slow the ruble’s rise in June. At the time, Economy Minister Maxim Reshetnikov criticized the idea, saying it wouldn’t be enough to move the ruble rate much but would force the government to reduce spending sharply.
Citigroup economist Ivan Tchakarov called the plan for buying $70 billion by year-end “quite ambitious,” writing in a note that past purchases have been more modest. “In any case,” he added, “the government seems determined to finally engineer a weaker ruble into year-end.”
Russia’s last unfrozen reserves turned out to be in a Chinese “trap”. About half of the 640 billion dollars available to the Central Bank before the start of the war in Ukraine fell under the first wave of Western sanctions – these are investments in dollars, euros, Japanese yen, British pounds, Australian and Canadian dollars.
The Central Bank began buying yuan in 2018, when the US imposed sanctions on Rusal and began discussing measures against Russian sovereign debt. The largest investment of 44 billion was made in the spring of 2018, when the exchange rate of the Chinese currency was 6.2-6.4 yuan to the dollar. In 2021, the Russian Ministry of Finance transferred the dollar portion of the $17 billion National Welfare Fund into yuan at a rate of 6.4 yuan to the dollar. The Chinese currency is now trading at around 6.9 yuan to the dollar.
The Central Bank’s gold – 2.3 thousand tons, which is the fifth largest reserve in the world, came under separate US sanctions in April. And although gold bars are located in Russia and cannot be arrested, they cannot be sold secretly abroad – Russian gold has characteristic impurities that will immediately show the origin of the metal.
We are all familiar with cloves and that it is a well-known spice that we cannot miss because of its strong aroma and taste.
But despite how small it is, it is very rich in minerals, such as calcium, copper, iron, magnesium, phosphorus, selenium, zinc, etc.
Its spectrum of action is very wide – the spice has a strong effect on the body and can solve many problems and prevent those that have not yet appeared. You can also use clove essential oil, which is rich in eugenol, which turns it into an antiseptic. Just by sucking a bud of it, you can even help get rid of bad breath by letting it dissolve.
Make it part of your morning routine, such as sucking on a spice 15 minutes before breakfast, and its components will have a good effect on your digestive tract. It is also very rich in antioxidants, can raise blood pressure and is quite useful instead of coffee.
According to some people, it is even a “female healer” because it can be used to prepare a potion suitable for irregular periods. Of course, never take before consulting a specialist to be as sure as possible that you are protecting your health.
Alevis are accepted by modern Shia scholarship, although there has long been controversy over this issue. From the beginning of their existence until today, the Alevis have been called by various names. In colloquial Turkish and in official documents from different periods, there are many designations for them. At the same time, they identify themselves with different names. The names “Kazalbashi”, “Alevi” and “Bektashi” have gained the greatest popularity. It is correct to point out that the term “Alevi” does not correspond either historically or chronologically to the name “Kazalbashi”. The word “Alevi” means “descendant of Ali ibn Abu Talib”, who was the son-in-law, cousin and first companion of the Prophet Muhammad. In the Ottoman Empire, this term is found since the 19th century and is preserved in modern Turkey. It refers to the opponents of Sunni Islam, i.e. the followers of Ali, who defend his right to rule in the ummah (Muslim community) after the death of Muhammad. Today, “Alevi” are the groups professing moderate or extreme Shia beliefs and mysticism. The name “Kazalbashi” appeared at the end of the 15th century and referred to the supporters of the Safavids, and later included all Turkic groups in Anatolia who professed heterodox Islam and in which the cult of Ali played a major role. The name “Kazalbash” comes from the Turkic words kazal – red and bash – head, i.e. red-headed, from the twelve red ribbons hung on their hats in honor of the twelve Shia imams. In documents from the time of the Ottoman Empire, “Kazalbash” is found as a synonym for the terms “Rafazi”, “Mulhid” and “Zandak”, which mean “heretic, apostate, godless” and have a pejorative meaning. Because of this negative meaning, “Kazalbash” is still replaced by “Alevi” to this day. It should be specified that within the community itself, the name “Kazalbash” is not offensive. The founder of the Safavid state, Shah Ismail himself, called himself, as well as his followers, “Qazlbash” without attaching a pejorative meaning to this term. According to I. Melikoff, the Qazlbashes in Anatolia, like their similar sectarian groups in Iran, should be referred to by the general name “Ali illahi”, since their common feature is the belief in the divinity of Ali. And they themselves are called so in their religious verses and prayers. At the same time, the Alevis (Kazalbashi) in Turkey are also called Bektashi, which refers them to the Bektashi Order and to Bektashiism in general. A significant number of them also identified as Babai and thus identified with the Babai movement that arose in 1239–1240 against the central Seljuk power. They are also defined as Ja’farites, i.e. as followers of the school of the sixth Imam Ja’far as-Sadiq, whose teachings they follow secretly. The community in question also uses for itself names that are kept secret from the uninitiated. Such are, for example, “ahl-i Haq” (“people of God, people of the Truth”), “Hak erenler” and “gerchek erenler” (“those who have reached the Divine truth”) or “gyuruh-i naji” (“community of the redeemed” ). Taking these meanings into consideration, it can be concluded that they perceive themselves to have known God and attained the Divine truth.
With their establishment in Anatolia, the Seljuks imposed the system of leased use of the land – ikta, tied to military and official duties. Turkic beys were also given the right to rule for life and thus became a kind of civil servants, subordinating large tribes and many settled peasants. Thus the foundation of the provincial Turkic dynasties was created. Among the tribes that arrived in Anatolia after the Mongol invasions, the imposition of the ikta system no longer proceeded smoothly. The discontent that grew among the Turks led to serious clashes between them and the Seljuk power. The most shocking was the Babai rebellion of 1239–1240 during the reign of Sultan Gyaseddin II Keyhusrev (1237–1246). The Turkic tribes resisted the advance of Islam. However, it penetrates into their lives in various ways – through coercive methods, through peaceful propaganda, through trade connections and due to economic interests. But caught in their cultural milieu, Islam was forced either to war against Turkic beliefs or to adapt and become part of them. He chooses the path to adaptation and the creation of syncretic forms. Thus, for four centuries, Islam managed to establish itself among the Turks. Entering the community of the Orthodox, the Turks preserved various national and regional traditions, integrated into their new religion. Despite becoming an integral part of the Muslim tradition, many of the Turks find it difficult to part with their old religious ideas, borrowed from shamanism and the other religious systems with which they came into contact (Buddhism, Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism, Mazdakism). A large part of the Turks do become a supporter of Islamic orthodoxy, but there are also a considerable number of adherents of Shiism who practice it in moderate or extreme forms. The penetration of Shi’ism among these groups is due to the fact that in the eastern provinces, inhabited also by Turkic groups, the propaganda of the Alids (supporters of Ali and his family) quickly spread. Already within the borders of the Ottoman Empire, the unrest of the Anatolian population did not stop. In the period after 1500, strong Turkic groups from the central Anatolian steppes, the Taurus Mountains, and the heights of Tokat and Sivas declared themselves against the centralized Ottoman administration. In an attempt to protect the settled population and preserve its agricultural income, the administration is making efforts to impose control over these tribes. For this purpose, it enters them in its cadastral registers and subjects them to systematic taxation. In the mentioned period, the Ottoman regime was no longer compatible with the nomadic economy and tribal customary law. He espoused the cause of Sunni orthodoxy, while the tribes fanatically adhered to dervish orders, preaching a form of Islam that was radically altered by tribal customs and shamanic beliefs. The mentioned tribes, known as Qazalbashi because of the red hood they wore, became the expressions of strong anti-Ottoman social and political sentiments. The Kızlbaş were the foundation of the Akkoyunlu state in Eastern Anatolia, which was one of the rivals of the Ottoman Empire to the east. In 1473, Mehmed the Conqueror crushed them mercilessly. Around 1500, however, Ismail Safavi, who was of the Safaviye dynasty, was supported by the Akkoyunlus in eastern Anatolia, in present-day Azerbaijan and Iran. As the leader of a heretical religious order, he spread his influence over all the Anatolian Turkic groups. His people preached his ideas all over Anatolia. Thousands of Ottoman subjects followed Ismail and he became their religious and political leader. For the central Ottoman power, the Qazalbashi movement was a serious internal problem because Ismail announced that he would make Anatolia part of the Iranian Empire. In 1511, when Bayezid II was old and ill, and the Ottoman princes were in conflict for the throne, the Qizlbaş of the western Anatolian highlands rose in revolt, led by one of Ismail’s men. They attack Bursa, burning and destroying everything in their path. Prince Selim was among the first to push for strong action against Ismail. Selim won the support of the Janissaries and on April 24, 1512, forced his father to abdicate. He imprisoned about 40,000 of Shah Ismail’s associates and executed them, and then attacked Ismail as well, declaring him a heretic Shiite. The Sultan caught up with the Shah’s army in eastern Anatolia and won a decisive victory at Chalderan on 23 August 1514. This victory temporarily removed the threat from the Qazalbaş and allowed Selim to annex the mountainous region from Erzurum to Diyarbakır to the Ottoman Empire. In 1516–1517, the local dynasties and chieftains of the area recognized Ottoman suzerainty. Turkic tribes from Anatolia, and in particular from Eastern Anatolia, migrated en masse to Iran and Azerbaijan, where they served as the main force in the Safavid armies. In the 16th century, there were also many forced deportations of heterodox groups from Eastern and Central Anatolia and from the conquered Azerbaijani regions. The policy of forced resettlement was most intense under Selim I and Suleiman I. In the Balkans, including the Bulgarian lands, large groups of displaced Qazalbashi arrived. Another part of the kizalbashi were killed. They remain outside the millet system. In parallel with the institutionalization of official religions and the creation of the millet system, Istanbul began to treat the Kızlbaş as a “fifth column” both religiously and politically. After defeating Safavid Persia, the Ottoman Empire severed ties between the Qazalbashi living in Ottoman territory and Iran. During this period of isolation, many og Qazalbash communities joined Bektashism, which included the Janissary Corps. This religious brotherhood, which is associated with the name of Haji Bektash (13th century), to some extent succeeded in channeling the heterodoxy of the Qazalbashi. However, one should not equate the religious practices of the Qizalbash and the Bektash, even though many of their elements of cult and belief are close. Membership in Bektashism is associated with a conscious act of initiation into a teacher. Belonging to the Qazalbashi, however, is predetermined at birth. The leaders of the two groups are not the same. The Bektashite brotherhood is led by the dedebaba, who is elected. The spiritual authority over most of the Qazalbashi is exercised by the chelebiya, perceived as a descendant of the saint Haji Bektash. In addition, not all Alevi groups belong to Bektashism. Some remain autonomous, such as the Tahtaji living along the Mediterranean coast of Turkey. The ties between Bektashi and Alevi weakened during the period of modernization that entered the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century. The Bektashi are a predominantly urban type of people, many of whom are part of the elite of Istanbul, Izmir and Thessaloniki. They take part in the modernization processes and a large number of them are among the reformers close to the authorities. Alevis, however, remain a predominantly rural population, foreign to reform processes and the idea of modernization. The Safavid episode was decisive for the formation of Qazalbash beliefs and practices, and Bektashism brought them somewhat closer to Muslim mysticism. Alevis interpret the Koran in a flexible way. They believe that the Sunnis are incapable of understanding the spirit of the Holy Book. They also do not observe some of the sacred pillars of Islam, for example daily prayers, fasting during the month of Ramadan, pilgrimage to Mecca. Their moral system of rules is concentrated in the formula “eline, diline, beline sahip olmak”, which translates to “be master of your hand, your tongue and your loins”, i.e. don’t steal, don’t lie and you shall not commit adultery.
